A stereological study of synapse number in the epileptic human hippocampus

Hippocampal sclerosis is the most frequent pathology encountered in resected mesial temporal structures from patients with intractable temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Here, we have used stereological methods to compare the overall density of synapses and neurons between non-sclerotic and sclerotic hippocampal tissue obtained by surgical resection from patients with TLE. Specifically, we examined the possible changes in the subiculum and CA1, regions that seem to be critical for the development and/or maintenance of seizures in these patients. We found a remarkable decrease in synaptic and neuronal density in the sclerotic CA1, and while the subiculum from the sclerotic hippocampus did not display changes in synaptic density, the neuronal density was higher. Since the subiculum from the sclerotic hippocampus displays a significant increase in neuronal density, as well as a various other neurochemical changes, we propose that the apparently normal subiculum from the sclerotic hippocampus suffers profound alterations in neuronal circuits at both the molecular and synaptic level that are likely to be critical for the development or maintenance of seizure activit

Facilitation of AMPA Receptor Synaptic Delivery as a Molecular Mechanism for Cognitive Enhancement

A small peptide from a neuronal cell adhesion molecule enhances synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus and results in improved cognitive performance in rats

FGL enhances spatial learning.

<p>(A) Mean distances swam to find the hidden platform in the Morris water maze are represented for control rats (white symbols) and FGL-treated rats (black symbols) over 2 training days (four trials each). <i>N</i>, number of animals. Statistical significance was analyzed with repeated-measures ANOVA. (B) Cumulative frequency distributions of the distances swam by individual rats. Each data point represents the distance swam by one rat in the last trial of each day.</p

FGL triggers hippocampal FGFR1 phosphorylation in vitro and in vivo.

<p>(A) Cartoon structure of the double fibronectin module (FN1+FN2) of human NCAM (Protein Data Bank number 2VKW). The FGL sequence is shown in red with the two glutamine residues critical for the binding to the FGF-receptor highlighted in magenta. (B) Top: Representative immunoblot showing the in vitro phosphorylation of FGFR1 after stimulation of Trex293 cells that express Strep-tagged human FGFR1 with different concentrations of FGL and 10 ng/ml FGF1 (positive control) for 20 min. Bottom: Quantification of FGFR1 phosphorylation by FGL was performed by densitometric analysis of band intensity from four independent experiments similar to the one shown in the upper panel. (C) Phosphorylation of FGFR1 and TrkB was examined from hippocampal homogenates with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) 1 h after FGL subcutaneous injection. <i>N</i>, number of animals. Results are expressed as percentage ± SEM, with untreated controls set at 0%. (D–F) Phosphorylation of PLCγ (D), Shc (E), and FRS2 (F) in vitro was examined by Western blot, as described in <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001262#pbio-1001262-g001" target="_blank">Figure 1B</a>. Treatment with FGF1 served as the positive control. Results from four independent experiments are expressed as a percentage ± SEM, with untreated controls set at 100%. *<i>p</i><0.05, **<i>p</i><0.01, ***<i>p</i><0.001 compared with controls. Statistics were carried out according to the <i>t</i> test.</p

FGL induces AMPA receptor synaptic delivery via PKC activation.

<p>(A) Left: CA1 pyramidal neurons that express GluA1-GFP (green) on a DAPI-stained (blue) organotypic slice culture, imaged with laser-scanning confocal microscopy. Bar = 50 µm. Right: High-magnification image of GluA1-GFP-expressing neurons. Bar = 20 µm. (B) Schematic diagram that presents whole-cell recordings obtained from a neuron expressing GluA1-GFP (infected, green) and an adjacent non-fluorescent (uninfected, white) neuron. (C) AMPAR-mediated responses were recorded at −60 mV and +40 mV. The rectification index was calculated as the ratio of responses at these holding potentials. The <i>p</i> value was determined using the Mann-Whitney test. (D–H) FGL-induced rectification after incubation with inhibitors of different signal transduction pathways: MEK, PD98059 (D); PI3K, LY294002 (E); PKC, chelerythrine (F); classical PKC isoforms, GF109203X (G); atypical PKC isoforms (H). Sample traces are shown above the corresponding columns of the plot. <i>N</i>, number of cells. The <i>p</i> value was determined using the Mann-Whitney test. Scale bars = 15 pA and 10 ms.</p

FGL enhances long-term synaptic potentiation.

<p>(A–B) Rectification experiments similar to the ones described in <a href="http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001262#pbio-1001262-g005" target="_blank">Figure 5</a>, after incubation with DL-AP5 (NMDAR inhibitor), KN-93 (CaMKII inhibitor), or KN-92 (inactive analog of KN-93). Sample traces are shown above the graphs. (C) Sample traces of evoked AMPAR-mediated synaptic responses recorded from CA1 neurons at −60 mV before (thin line) and after (thick line) LTP induction. LTP was induced by pairing presynaptic 3 Hz stimulation (540 pulses) with postsynaptic depolarization (0 mV). One of the stimulating electrodes was turned off during LTP induction (“unpaired pathway”). Organotypic slice cultures were incubated with (i) normal culture medium (control), (ii) FGL, (iii) the PKC inhibitor chelerythrine (Chel), or (iv) FGL and chelerythrine (FGL+Chel), as indicated. Treatments were for 24 h and slices were transferred to fresh culture medium (without FGL or chelerythine) for an additional 24 h prior to recordings. (D) Time course of normalized AMPAR-mediated synaptic responses before and after LTP induction (black arrow), from the slices treated as in (C). For simplicity, each time point in the plot corresponds to the average of 12 consecutive stimulations (sampling rate: 0.2 Hz). (E–F) Quantification of average synaptic potentiation from paired (“LTP”) and unpaired pathways from the last 10 min of the time-course shown in (D). The <i>p</i> value was determined with the Mann-Whitney test. <i>N</i>, number of cells.</p

FGL-triggered persistent activation of signaling pathways.

<p>(A) Left: Western blot of hippocampal extracts treated with TPA (12-<i>O</i>-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate; PKC activator that served as a positive control), untreated (“0”), and treated with FGL at different time-points after FGL application. The primary antibody detects phosphorylation of endogenous proteins at PKC substrate motifs (phospho-(Ser) PKC substrate). Right: Quantification of Western blots similar to the one shown on the left, by calculating the combined intensity from all bands in each lane. <i>N</i>, number of independent experiments. The <i>p</i> values were determined with the Mann-Whitney test. (B, C) Left: Western blot of hippocampal extracts treated with FGL at different time-points after FGL application and untreated (“0”). The primary antibodies detected phosphorylated CaMKII at Thr286 (p-CaMKII) and total levels of CaMKII (T-CaMKII) (B), or phospho-GluA1 (P-S831) and total GluA1 (C). Tubulin was used as a loading control. Right: Quantification of Western blots similar to the ones shown on the left. <i>N</i>, number of independent experiments. The <i>p</i> values were determined using the Mann-Whitney test.</p

Enhanced postsynaptic excitatory transmission in neurons treated with FGL.

<p>(A) Average AMPA/NMDA ratios for treated and untreated cells. AMPAR-mediated responses were recorded at −60 mV, and NMDAR-mediated responses were recorded at +40 mV. The <i>p</i> value was determined using the Mann-Whitney test. (B) Average AMPA/GABA ratios for treated and untreated cells. AMPAR-mediated responses were recorded at −60 mV, and GABA-mediated responses were recorded at +0 mV. NMDAR were blocked with DL-AP5. The <i>p</i> value was determined using a <i>t</i> test. Representative traces appear above the corresponding bars. <i>N</i>, number of cells. (C) Average NMDA/GABA ratios for treated and untreated cells. NMDAR-mediated responses were recorded at −60 mV in the absence of Mg²⁺ and in the presence of CNQX to block AMPARs. GABA-mediated responses were recorded at 0 mV. The <i>p</i> value was determined using a <i>t</i> test. Representative traces appear above the corresponding bars. <i>N</i>, number of cells. (D) Paired-pulse facilitation (PPF) in FGL and control neurons. The values denote the ratio of the second EPSC amplitude to the first EPSC amplitude. PPF was tested for 50-, 100-, 200-, and 400-ms interstimulus intervals. Insets. Sample trace of evoked AMPAR-mediated synaptic responses with an interstimulus interval of 50 ms. <i>N</i>, number of cells. Scale bars: 10 pA, 50 ms.</p