Epimutations of human germ cells and infertility

Infertilität stellt in unserer heutigen Gesellschaft ein zunehmendes Problem dar. Bei der Suche nach den der Infertilität zugrunde liegenden Ursachen gerät immer mehr die Epigenetik in den Fokus. Epigenetische Prozesse sind nicht nur in die Embryo-nalentwicklung und Wachstumsprozesse des Kindes involviert, sondern auch in korrekte Funktionsweisen von Gameten. Störungen können die Fertilität beeinträch-tigen. Eine besondere Rolle spielen geprägte Gene, die auf einem ihrer Allele, je nach parentaler Herkunft, ein Imprint in Form von DNA-Methylierung tragen. Fehl-regulationen solcher geprägter Gene können zu Imprinting-Erkrankungen führen. Seit Einführung der In-vitro-Fertilisation (IVF) wurden verschiedene assistierte Re-produktionstechniken (ART) entwickelt, um infertilen Paaren zu helfen. Die Sicher-heit dieser Techniken ist nicht abschließend geklärt. Immer wieder wird von nach ART-Behandlung gehäuft auftretenden Imprinting-Erkrankungen berichtet. Diese Erkrankungen stehen jedoch eher in Zusammenhang mit der zugrunde liegenden Infertilität, als mit ART selbst. Dennoch ist es notwendig zu untersuchen inwieweit sich ART eventuell auf den Gesundheitszustand dieser Kinder auswirken könnte. In der hier vorgelegten Arbeit wurde der Zusammenhang von Epigenetik, Infertilität und ART von verschiedenen Standpunkten aus beleuchtet. In humanen Spermien wurde die DNA-Methylierung verschiedener geprägter Gene hinsichtlich Epimutationen untersucht. ICSI (intracytoplasmatic sperm injection) und IMSI (intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection) sind verschiedene Techniken zur Selektion von Spermien für eine ART-Behandlung. Hier wurde un-tersucht, ob IMSI epigenetisch bessere Spermien selektiert als die konventionelle ICSI-Methode. Außerdem ist bekannt, dass in Spermienköpfen fertiler und infertiler Männer Vakuolen vorkommen können, deren epigenetische Bedeutung jedoch un-bekannt ist. Ob diese Vakuolen in Zusammenhang mit Epimutationen stehen könn-ten, wurde ebenfalls überprüft. Dazu wurde bisulfitkonvertierte DNA weniger Sper-mien (11 je Probe) mithilfe der Limiting Dilution (LD)–Technik und Pyrosequenzie-rung analysiert. Insgesamt standen 880 Spermien für diese Untersuchung zur Ver-fügung. Es konnte kein Unterschied zwischen IMSI- und ICSI-selektierten Spermien gefunden werden. Vorhandene Vakuolen im Spermienkopf beeinträchtigten nicht die DNA-Methylierung der Gene hGTL2, hLIT1 und hPEG3. Ein weiteres Projekt befasste sich mit der Frage, inwieweit die Technik der In-vitro-Maturation (IVM) DNA-Methylierung in humanen Oocyten beeinflussen könnte. Bisulfitkonvertierte DNA einzelner humaner Oocyten wurde mit LD und Pyrose-quenzierung analysiert. Verglichen wurden IVM und in vivo gereifte Oocyten. Hier-für standen 139 Oocyten zur Verfügung, wovon 90 mittels IVM und 49 in vivo gereift waren. Untersucht wurden vier geprägte Gene (hGTL2, hLIT1, hPEG3 und hSNRPN) und drei nicht geprägte Gene (hDNMT3Lo, hNANOG und hOCT4). Es konnten keine IVM-bedingten Epimutationen gefunden werden. Im dritten Projekt wurde untersucht, ob sich die DNA-Methylierung normaler Sper-mien von Spermien aus Oligozoospermie-Asthenozoospermie-Teratozoospermie (OAT)–Syndrom-Patienten unterscheidet. Eine weitere Frage war, ob Epimutationen einen Einfluss auf den ART-Ausgang haben. Untersucht wurden 54 Spermienpro-ben von Paaren in ART-Behandlung. Zur Untersuchung der DNA-Methylierungsmuster der geprägten Gene hGTL2 und hPEG3 sowie der beiden nicht geprägten Pluripotenzgene hNANOG und hOCT4 wurde die Methode Deep Bisulfite Sequencing (DBS) verwendet. Dies ist eine Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)–Technik, angewandt an bisulfitkonvertierter DNA. Diese Technik ermöglicht es mehrere Proben sowie Gene gleichzeitig zu analysieren. Es zeigte sich, dass OAT-Spermien, die zu einer Lebendgeburt geführt hatten, sich epigenetisch nicht von normalen Spermien unterschieden. Besonders viele Epimutationen konnten hingegen in OAT-Spermien gefunden werden, die zu keiner Schwangerschaft ge-führt hatten. Zwischen Spermien die zu einer Lebendgeburt oder keiner Schwan-gerschaft geführt hatten, zeigten sich Unterschiede in der Häufigkeit von hGTL2-Epimutationen. Über die Häufigkeit von Epimutationen konnte eine prädiktive Aus-sage zum ART-Ausgang getroffen werden. Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit festgestellt werden, dass sich eine Häu-fung von Epimutationen darauf auswirkt, ob eine Schwangerschaft erreicht werden kann oder nicht. Diese Epimutationen liegen bereits im parentalen Genom vor. Sie werden nicht durch ART verursacht. Allerdings muss man Techniken finden, mit denen man Gameten mit möglichst wenig Epimutationen selektiert, um eine Über-tragung solcher auf das Kind zu verhindern.Infertility is an increasing problem in today’s society. The search for the underlying causes of infertility reveals more and more the role of epigenetics. Epigenetic pro-cesses are involved in embryo development and growth, but also in the proper func-tion of gametes. Disturbances have been shown to impair fertility. Imprinted genes play an important role. They carry a parental-specific DNA methylation imprint on one of their alleles. Deregulation of these genes leads to imprinting diseases. Since the introduction of in vitro fertilisation (IVF), different assisted reproductive technologies (ART) have been developed to treat infertile couples. The safety of these techniques is not finally solved. Increased rates of imprinting diseases in ART offspring have been reported, but seem more likely to be linked to the underlying parental infertility problems than to ART itself. Nevertheless it is of importance to in-vestigate how ART could affect the health of those children. In the work presented here the relations between epigenetics, infertility and ART have been investigated from different points of view. Firstly, the DNA methylation pattern of different imprinted genes has been investi-gated in human sperm with regard to the frequency of epimutations. ICSI (intracyto-plasmatic sperm injection) and IMSI (intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection) are different techniques to select sperm for ART treatment. It was analysed whether IMSI selects epigenetically superior sperm than the conventional ICSI method. Furthermore it is known that sperm from fertile and infertile men can carry vacuoles in their sperm heads. Their epigenetic relevance is unknown. Whether these vacuoles are linked to epimutations has also been investigated here. Bisulfite converted DNA of a few sperm (11 per sample) was analysed using the Limiting Dilution (LD) technique followed by pyrosequencing. In total 880 sperm were available for analysis. No difference between IMSI and ICSI selected sperm was found. Further, no influence of sperm head vacuoles on the DNA methylation patterns of the genes hGTL2, hLIT1 and hPEG3 could be observed. Secondly, it was of interest whether the in vitro maturation (IVM) technique has an influence on DNA methylation in human oocytes. Bisulfite converted DNA of single human oocytes was analysed with LD and pyrosequencing. IVM oocytes were com-pared to in vivo grown oocytes. A total of 139 oocytes were available, of which 90 oocytes were IVM treated while 49 oocytes were grown in vivo. Four imprinted genes (hGTL2, hLIT1, hPEG3 and hSNRPN) and three non-imprinted genes (hDNMT3Lo, hNANOG and hOCT4) were analysed. No IVM-induced epimutations were detected. Finally, it was investigated whether DNA methylation patterns of normal sperm would differ from sperm of oligozoospermia-asthenozoospermia-teratozoospermia (OAT) syndrome patients. Furthermore it was of interest whether epimutations would influence the ART outcome. A total of 54 sperm samples from couples undergoing ART treatment were investigated. To analyse DNA methylation of the imprinted genes hGTL2 and hPEG3 as well as the non-imprinted pluripotency genes hNANOG and hOCT4, Deep Bisulfite Sequencing (DBS) was applied. This is a Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technique applied on bisulfite converted DNA, al-lowing the analysis of several samples and genes at once. The obtained results showed that OAT samples, which had led to a live-birth, did not differ epigenetically from normal sperm. Much more epimutations were found in OAT sperm which had failed to achieve a pregnancy. Sperm not being able to achieve a pregnancy differed from sperm that had led to a live-birth with regard to hGTL2 epimutation frequency. In addition, ART outcome can be predicted using the frequency of epimutations. Taken together this work shows that the amount of epimutations influences whether a pregnancy can be achieved or not. Epimutations already exist within the parental genome. They are not caused by ART. Nevertheless, one needs to find techniques with which gametes with as few as possible epimutations are being selected to pre-vent the transmission of these onto the offspring

Epigenetic heterogeneity of developmentally important genes in human sperm: Implications for assisted reproduction outcome

<div><p>The molecular basis of male infertility is poorly understood, the majority of cases remaining unsolved. The association of aberrant sperm DNA methylation patterns and compromised semen parameters suggests that disturbances in male germline epigenetic reprogramming contribute to this problem. So far there are only few data on the epigenetic heterogeneity of sperm within a given sample and how to select the best sperm for successful infertility treatment. Limiting dilution bisulfite sequencing of small pools of sperm from fertile donors did not reveal significant differences in the occurrence of abnormal methylation imprints between sperm with and without morphological abnormalities. Intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection was not associated with an improved epigenetic quality, compared to standard intracytoplasmatic sperm injection. Deep bisulfite sequencing (DBS) of 2 imprinted and 2 pluripotency genes in sperm from men attending a fertility center showed that in both samples with normozoospermia and oligoasthenoteratozoospermia (OAT) the vast majority of sperm alleles was normally (de)methylated and the percentage of epimutations (allele methylation errors) was generally low (<1%). However, DBS allowed one to identify and quantify these rare epimutations with high accuracy. Sperm samples not leading to a pregnancy, in particular in the OAT group, had significantly more epimutations in the paternally methylated <i>GTL2</i> gene than samples leading to a live birth. All 13 normozoospermic and 13 OAT samples leading to a child had <1% <i>GTL2</i> epimutations, whereas one (7%) of 14 normozoospermic and 7 (50%) of 14 OAT samples without pregnancy displayed 1–14% <i>GTL2</i> epimutations.</p></div

Popeye domain containing proteins are essential for stress-mediated modulation of cardiac pacemaking in mice

Cardiac pacemaker cells create rhythmic pulses that control heart rate; pacemaker dysfunction is a prevalent disorder in the elderly, but little is known about the underlying molecular causes. Popeye domain containing (Popdc) genes encode membrane proteins with high expression levels in cardiac myocytes and specifically in the cardiac pacemaking and conduction system. Here, we report the phenotypic analysis of mice deficient in Popdc1 or Popdc2. ECG analysis revealed severe sinus node dysfunction when freely roaming mutant animals were subjected to physical or mental stress. In both mutants, bradyarrhythmia developed in an age-dependent manner. Furthermore, we found that the conserved Popeye domain functioned as a high-affinity cAMP-binding site. Popdc proteins interacted with the potassium channel TREK-1, which led to increased cell surface expression and enhanced current density, both of which were negatively modulated by cAMP. These data indicate that Popdc proteins have an important regulatory function in heart rate dynamics that is mediated, at least in part, through cAMP binding. Mice with mutant Popdc1 and Popdc2 alleles are therefore useful models for the dissection of the mechanisms causing pacemaker dysfunction and could aid in the development of strategies for therapeutic intervention

Limiting dilution bisulfite (pyro)sequencing reveals parent-specific methylation patterns in single early mouse embryos and bovine oocytes

To detect rare epigenetic effects associated with assisted reproduction, it is necessary to monitor methylation patterns of developmentally important genes in a few germ cells and individual embryos. Bisulfite treatment degrades DNA and reduces its complexity, rendering methylation analysis from small amounts of DNA extremely challenging. Here we describe a simple approach that allows determining the parent-specific methylation patterns of multiple genes in individual early embryos. Limiting dilution (LD) of bisulfite-treated DNA is combined with independent multiplex PCRs of single DNA target molecules to avoid amplification bias. Using this approach, we compared the methylation status of three imprinted (H19, Snrpn and Igf2r) and one pluripotency-related gene (Oct4) in three different groups of single mouse two-cell embryos. Standard in vitro fertilization of superovulated oocytes and the use of in vitro matured oocytes were not associated with significantly increased rates of stochastic single CpG methylation errors and epimutations (allele methylation errors), when compared with the in vivo produced controls. Similarly, we compared the methylation patterns of two imprinted genes (H19 and Snrpn) in individual mouse 16-cell embryos produced in vivo from superovulated and non-superovulated oocytes and did not observe major between-group differences. Using bovine oocytes and polar bodies as a model, we demonstrate that LD even allows the methylation analysis of multiple genes in single cells