Genetic epistemology and the sociology of knowledge

Bibliography: leaves 263-286.This study originates in certain shortcomings in the sociology of knowledge and in sociological theory generally. Among such shortcomings are: an unnecessarily restricted conception of knowledge, the neglect of contemporary findings in biology and psychology, and the oversocialized conception of humankind and knowledge. This study aims to correct certain of these shortcomings through redefining knowledge and developing part of a comprehensive theory of knowledge which unites the biology of knowledge, the psychology of knowledge and the sociology of knowledge. Piaget's genetic epistemology and Popper's and Lorenz's evolutionary epistemology provide much of the material which inspired this study and which is developed in it. It is argue that the sociology of knowledge has not yet seriously encountered these disciplines and would benefit from such an encounter. Ethology, developmental psychology, cybernetics, and anthropology are other sources of information used. Knowledge is defined as assimilated information. It is argued that knowledge is assimilated in three basic contexts: that of the species, the individual organism, and the collectivity. These yield, respectively, innate knowledge, learnt knowledge, and social knowledge. Knowledge, thus, is viewed as evolving phylogenetically, ontogenetically, and socio-genetically. Various theses are proposed and arguments and facts supporting them presented in the course of developing the theory of knowledge. The following are among the theses proposed: Life is a knowledge process. Human knowledge and knowledge processes can be illuminated by studying the intellectual development of animals and children. Human knowledge and reality are biologically, psychologically, and sociologically constructed. All humans are born with an innate learning schema. This schema is responsible for human life and culture. It plays an important part in determining the pattern and content of culture. Truth is, in part, biologically determined. Society depends on many forms of non-social knowledge. The understanding of culture requires an understanding of the varieties and forms of nonsocial knowledge which make culture possible. The study constitutes a contribution to knowledge in various ways. Rather than considering the relationship between biology and behaviour as is customary, this study considers the relationship between biology and knowledge. Certain new concepts are introduced and a theory of knowledge is outlined which integrates the biology of knowledge, the psychology of knowledge and the sociology of knowledge. The study demonstrates that humankind's biological nature plays a vital role in socialization and in the production of culture. It thus serves to correct oversocialized views of humankind. The study reveals that reality is phylogenetically, ontogenetically and sociogenetically constructed; it is the result of the evolution and operation of biological, psychological and sociological factors

Character, objects and properties

The thesis sets out to accomplish three related tasks at different levels of generality. The first is articulating and defending two problems: The Problem of Resemblance and The Problem of Character, pushing for a shift of focus to the latter. The second level is to consider a general approach to dealing with these problems, the constituent ontology, with a focus on The Problem of Character. I argue that the constituent ontology is a valuable and coherent general approach to giving an answer to these problems. Finally, at the last level of the greatest degree of specificity, I consider particular versions of the constituent approach: one that takes properties to be non-mereological constituents of objects and the other that takes properties to be ontological parts of objects operating under a property mereology. I argue for the latter, which is known as the mereological bundle theory. I argue that this version of the constituent ontology offers a powerful theory of exactly how properties and objects are related by proper ontological parthood. I take the mereological bundle theory to offer the best systematic metaphysics of properties and objects, one that is not only metaphysically coherent but also one that accords well with empirical considerations on the nature of spacetime in physical science. If I am correct, then the world is nothing but a world of properties and fusions of those properties

Confidentiality or continuity? Family caregivers\' experiences with care for HIV/AIDS patients in homebased care in Lesotho

In the context of poor access to antiretroviral therapies in sub-Saharan Africa, the minimum treatment package intended to treat opportunistic infections common with HIV infection is inadequate but appealing, since it presumes universal coverage of medical care for patients living with HIV and AIDS. The overall objective of this study was to analyse the challenges which family caregivers encountered in home-based care when they tried to access medical treatment for home-based AIDS patients in the context of confidentiality and limited medical care. A qualitative study using in-depth interviews with a sample of 21 family caregivers –16 females and 5 males aged between 23 and 85 years was conducted with the assistance of health personnel in two hospitals in Lesotho. Using the concept of continuity of care, this article discusses the experiences of family caregivers about home care, including their experiences of adherence to confidentiality by health care professionals and non-disclosure of AIDS as the context of illness, the circumstances under which the caregivers initiated caregiving and sought medical care, and how these factors could be stressors in caregiving. There was continuity of care where the caregivers obtained hospital support. However, when confidentiality was adhered to the caregivers were frustrated by lack of information, disrupted treatment, exclusion of their perspectives in medical care, failure to secure hospitalisation, ambiguous goals and non-responsiveness, so that continuity of care was jeopardised. Thus it can be concluded that professional-assisted disclosure benefited the patients because it facilitated continuity of care through the caregivers. Dans un contexte africain sous-Saharien où l'accès aux thérapies antirétrovirales est très limité, le paquet minimum de traitement destiné au traitement des infections opportunistes liées à la séropositivité est inadéquat mais attirant puisqu'il suppose une couverture universelle de soins médicaux pour des malades vivant avec le VIH/SIDA. L'objectif global de cette communication est d'analyser les défis auxquels les soignants familiaux font face en soins à domicile lorsqu'ils essayent d'avoir accès au traitement médical pour les malades du SIDA dans un contexte de confidentialité et des soins médicaux limités. Une étude qualitative employant des entretiens détaillés auprès d'un échantillon de 21 soignants familiaux (16 femmes et 5 hommes âgés de 23 à 85 ans) a été menée grâce à l'aide du personnel de santé dans deux hôpitaux au Lesotho. En utilisant le concept de continuité de soins, cette communication met en relief des expériences des soignants sur les soins à domicile. Cette communication examine des expériences des soignants familiaux sur les éléments suivants : l'adhésion par les professionnels de santé et de soins à la confidentialité et à la non-divulgation de séropositivité comme étant le contexte de maladie, les circonstances sous lesquelles les soignants ont initié les soins, les soins médicaux suscités, surtout le diagnostic et le traitement, ainsi que l'hospitalisation et la manière dans laquelle ces facteurs pourraient être à l'origine du stresse chez les soignants. On a constaté que la continuité des soins dans le cas où les soignants recevaient du soutien hospitalier – l'information, un traitement gratuit des multiples symptômes et l'hospitalisation de manière prévue et consistante. Cependant, lorsqu'il y avait adhésion à la confidentialité, les soignants étaient frustrés par le manque d'information, un traitement perturbé, l'exclusion de leurs opinions vis-à-vis les soins médicaux, ne pas pouvoir assurer l'hospitalisation des malades et les objectifs ambigües, la non-réceptivité et la continuité a été compromise. En conclusion, on constate que en divulguant sa séropositivité avec l'aide professionnelle a énormément aidé les malades car cela a facilité la continuité de soins assurés par les soignants. Keywords: Lesotho, HIV/AIDS, confidentiality, caregiving, continuity of care, ethic of care. SAHARA J Vol. 5 (1) 2008: pp. 36-4

Occupational bladder cancer: a cross section survey of previous employments, tasks and exposures matched to cancer phenotypes

Objectives Up to 10% of Bladder Cancers may arise following occupational exposure to carcinogens. We hypothesised that different cancer phenotypes reflected different patterns of occupational exposure. Methods Consecutive participants, with bladder cancer, self-completed a structured questionnaire detailing employment, tasks, exposures, smoking, lifestyle and family history. Our primary outcome was association between cancer phenotype and occupational details. Results We collected questionnaires from 536 patients, of whom 454 (85%) participants (352 men and 102 women) were included. Women were less likely to be smokers (68% vs. 81% Chi sq. p<0.001), but more likely than men to inhale environmental tobacco smoke at home (82% vs. 74% p = 0.08) and use hair dye (56% vs. 3%, p<0.001). Contact with potential carcinogens occurred in 282 (62%) participants (mean 3.1 per worker (range 0–14)). High-grade cancer was more common than low-grade disease in workers from the steel, foundry, metal, engineering and transport industries (p<0.05), and in workers exposed to crack detection dyes, chromium, coal/oil/gas by-products, diesel fumes/fuel/aircraft fuel and solvents (such as trichloroethylene). Higher staged cancers were frequent in workers exposed to Chromium, coal products and diesel exhaust fumes/fuel (p<0.05). Various workers (e.g. exposed to diesel fuels or fumes (Cox, HR 1.97 (95% CI 1.31–2.98) p = 0.001), employed in a garage (HR 2.19 (95% CI 1.31–3.63) p = 0.001), undertaking plumbing/gas fitting/ventilation (HR 2.15 (95% CI 1.15–4.01) p = 0.017), undertaking welding (HR 1.85 (95% CI 1.24–2.77) p = 0.003) and exposed to welding materials (HR 1.92 (95% CI 1.27–2.91) p = 0.002)) were more likely to have disease progression and receive radical treatment than others. Fewer than expected deaths were seen in healthcare workers (HR 0.17 (95% CI 0.04–0.70) p = 0.014). Conclusions We identified multiple occupational tasks and contacts associated with bladder cancer. There were some associations with phenotype, although our study design precludes robust assessment

Spectroscopic measurement of the refractive index of ion-implanted diamond

We present the results of variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsometry and transmittance measurements to determine the variation of the complex refractive index of ion implanted single-crystal diamond. An increase is found in both real and imaginary parts at increasing damage densities. The index depth variation is determined in the whole wavelength range between 250 and 1690 nm. The dependence from the vacancy density is evaluated, highlighting a deviation from linearity in the high-damage-density regime. A considerable increase (up to 5%) in the real part of the index is observed, attributed to an increase in polarizability, thus offering new microfabrication possibilities for waveguides and other photonic structures in diamond.Comment: 3 pages, 4 figure

Hyperthermic intravesical chemotherapy with mitomycin‐C for the treatment of high‐risk non‐muscle‐invasive bladder cancer patients

Objectives The objectives of the study are to explore tolerability, acceptability and oncological outcomes for patients with high-risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) treated with hyperthermic intravesical chemotherapy (HIVEC) and mitomycin-C (MMC) at our institution. Patients and Methods Our single-institution, observational study consists of consecutive high-risk NMIBC patients treated with HIVEC and MMC. Our HIVEC protocol included six weekly instillations (induction), followed by two further cycles of three instillations (maintenance) (6 + 3 + 3) if there was cystoscopic response. Patient demographics, instillation dates and adverse events (AEs) were collected prospectively in our dedicated HIVEC clinic. Retrospective case-note review was performed to evaluate oncological outcomes. Primary outcomes were tolerability and acceptability of HIVEC protocol; secondary outcomes were 12-month recurrence-free, progression-free and overall survival. Results In total, 57 patients (median age 80.3 years) received HIVEC and MMC, with a median follow-up of 18 months. Of these, 40 (70.2%) had recurrent tumours, and 29 (50.9%) had received prior Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG). HIVEC induction was completed by 47 (82.5%) patients, but only 19 (33.3%) completed the full protocol. Disease recurrence (28.9%) and AEs (28.9%) were the most common reasons for incompletion of protocol; five (13.2%) patients stopped treatment due to logistical challenges. AEs occurred in 20 (35.1%) patients; the most frequently documented were rash (10.5%), urinary tract infection (8.8%) and bladder spasm (8.8%). Progression during treatment occurred in 11 (19.3%) patients, 4 (7.0%) of whom had muscle invasion and 5 (8.8%) subsequently required radical treatment. Patients who had received prior BCG were significantly more likely to progress (p = 0.04). 12-month recurrence-free, progression-free and overall survival rates were 67.5%, 82.2%, and 94.7%, respectively. Conclusions Our single-institution experience suggests that HIVEC and MMC are tolerable and acceptable. Oncological outcomes in this predominantly elderly, pretreated cohort are promising; however, disease progression was higher in patients pretreated with BCG. Further randomised noninferiority trials comparing HIVEC versus BCG in high-risk NMIBC are required

Epidemiology of Bladder Cancer in 2023: A Systematic Review of Risk Factors

CONTEXT Bladder cancer (BC) is common worldwide and poses a significant public health challenge. External risk factors and the wider exposome (totality of exposure from external and internal factors) contribute significantly to the development of BC. Therefore, establishing a clear understanding of these risk factors is the key to prevention. OBJECTIVE To perform an up-to-date systematic review of BC's epidemiology and external risk factors. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION Two reviewers (I.J. and S.O.) performed a systematic review using PubMed and Embase in January 2022 and updated it in September 2022. The search was restricted to 4 yr since our previous review in 2018. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Our search identified 5177 articles and a total of 349 full-text manuscripts. GLOBOCAN data from 2020 revealed an incidence of 573 000 new BC cases and 213 000 deaths worldwide in 2020. The 5-yr prevalence worldwide in 2020 was 1 721 000. Tobacco smoking and occupational exposures (aromatic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) are the most substantial risk factors. In addition, correlative evidence exists for several risk factors, including specific dietary factors, imbalanced microbiome, gene-environment risk factor interactions, diesel exhaust emission exposure, and pelvic radiotherapy. CONCLUSIONS We present a contemporary overview of the epidemiology of BC and the current evidence for BC risk factors. Smoking and specific occupational exposures are the most established risk factors. There is emerging evidence for specific dietary factors, imbalanced microbiome, gene-external risk factor interactions, diesel exhaust emission exposure, and pelvic radiotherapy. Further high-quality evidence is required to confirm initial findings and further understand cancer prevention. PATIENT SUMMARY Bladder cancer is common, and the most substantial risk factors are smoking and workplace exposure to suspected carcinogens. On-going research to identify avoidable risk factors could reduce the number of people who get bladder cancer

Lifestyle Factors in Patients with Bladder Cancer: A Contemporary Picture of Tobacco Smoking, Electronic Cigarette Use, Body Mass Index, and Levels of Physical Activity

Background Little is known about contemporary lifestyle choices in patients with bladder cancer (BC). These choices include carcinogenic risk factors and could affect fitness to receive treatments. Objective To evaluate the contemporary lifestyle choices in BC patients. Design, setting, and participants Self-reported surveys from participants diagnosed with BC in the previous 10 yr captured smoking patterns, e-cigarette use, physical activity using the GODIN Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire, long-term conditions (LTCs), relationship status, sociodemographics, and body mass index (BMI; height and weight). Outcome measurements and statistical analysis Findings were compared with the general population and men with prostate cancer. Results and limitations Completed surveys were received from 2092 participants. Most respondents were ex-smokers (61% vs 10% current vs 29% never). The use of e-cigarettes was uncommon (9%) and at lower rates than the age-equivalent general population. Passive smoke exposure was frequent (48%). Most participants (68%) were “insufficiently active” using the GODIN criteria and less physically active than the age-equivalent general population. Most respondents (44%) were classified as overweight (BMI 25–29.99) or obese (22%, BMI >30). Lifestyle factors varied with age, sex, socioeconomic deprivation, and LTCs. Younger participants were less likely to smoke (p < 0.001), more likely to have used e-cigarettes (p < 0.001), but more likely to have had passive smoke exposure (p = 0.008). Those from less affluent areas were more likely to smoke (p < 0.001), have used e-cigarettes (p < 0.001), and have had passive smoke exposure (p = 0.02). Females were less likely to be smokers (p < 0.001) but more likely to have been exposed to passive smoke (p < 0.001). Conclusions Persons affected by BC often have smoking exposures and high BMI, and are insufficiently active. Rates of e-cigarette use were lower than in the general population. Efforts to improve quality of life in this cohort should include wider advocation of smoking cessation, perhaps including the use of e-cigarettes, and programmes to increase exercise and reduce BMI. Patient summary We looked at the lifestyle choices, such as smoking, e-cigarette use, physical activity levels, and obesity, of patients following a bladder cancer diagnosis. We conclude that this population would benefit from healthy lifestyle interventions

Epidemiology of bladder cancer: A systematic review and contemporary update of risk factors in 2018

CONTEXT: Bladder cancer (BC) is a significant health problem, and understanding the risk factors for this disease could improve prevention and early detection. OBJECTIVE: To provide a systematic review and summary of novel developments in epidemiology and risk factors for BC. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: A systematic review of original articles was performed by two pairs of reviewers (M.G.C., I.J., F.E., and K.P.) using PubMed/Medline in December 2017, updated in April 2018. To address our primary objective of reporting contemporary studies, we restricted our search to include studies from the last 5yr. We subdivided our review according to specific risk factors (PICO [Population Intervention Comparator Outcome]). EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: Our search found 2191 articles, of which 279 full-text manuscripts were included. We separated our manuscripts by the specific risk factor they addressed (PICO). According to GLOBOCAN estimates, there were 430000 new BC cases and 165000 deaths worldwide in 2012. Tobacco smoking and occupational exposure to carcinogens remain the factors with the highest attributable risk. The literature was limited by heterogeneity of data. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence is emerging regarding gene-environment interactions, particularly for tobacco and occupational exposures. In some populations, incidence rates are declining, which may reflect a decrease in smoking. Standardisation of reporting may help improve epidemiologic evaluation of risk. PATIENT SUMMARY: Bladder cancer is common worldwide, and the main risk factors are tobacco smoking and exposure to certain chemicals in the working and general environments. There is ongoing research to identify and reduce risk factors, as well as to understand the impact of genetics on bladder cancer risk

Analysis of the distal urinary tract in larval and adult zebrafish reveals homology to the human system

Little is known about the distal excretory component of the urinary tract in Danio rerio (zebrafish). This component is affected by many human diseases and disorders of development. Here, we have undertaken multi-level analyses to determine the structure and composition of the distal urinary tract in the zebrafish. In silico searches identified uroplakin 1a (ukp1a), uroplakin 2 (upk2) and uroplakin 3b (upk3b) genes in the zebrafish genome (orthologues to genes that encode urothelium-specific proteins in humans). In situ hybridization demonstrated ukp1a expression in the zebrafish pronephros and cloaca from 96 h post-fertilization. Haematoxylin and Eosin staining of adult zebrafish demonstrated two mesonephric ducts uniting into a urinary bladder that leads to a distinct urethral opening. Immunohistochemistry identified Uroplakin 1a, Uroplakin 2 and GATA3 expression in zebrafish urinary bladder cell layers that match human urothelial expression. Fluorescent dye injections demonstrated zebrafish urinary bladder function, including urine storage and intermittent micturition, and a urethral orifice separate from the larger anal canal and rectum. Our findings reveal homology between the urinary tracts of zebrafish and humans, and offer the former as a model system to study disease