Reflecting on Maine’s Changing Productive Coastal Region

This article reflects on Maine’s changing coastal region and blue economy. Much of Maine’s coastal economy is now considered to be overly dependent on a single commercial fishery, the iconic Maine lobster fishery. Marine aquaculture has grown in the last 10 years, with expansion expected both on land and sea. Marine renewable energy is also an emerging use but remains a frontier. These changes have been exacerbated by demographic changes characterized by youth out- and amenity migration. As community demographics and coastal uses continue to change following the region’s postproductive transition, policymakers must be proactive in considering potential conflicts emerging between different uses and value systems held in Maine’s coastal communities

Capturing Feedback in Complex Marine Ecosystems: Two Models

Marine systems are complex and highly variable. Feedback is required to learn in and manage these systems. Unfortunately, feedback in complex marine systems is difficult to capture and ambiguous. Feedback is a function of system structure. Conventional fisheries management simplifies this structure by focusing on individual species. It assumes that variability in populations is due solely to changes in the adult population (i.e., that a stock-recruitment relationship exists) and all necessary feedback is available by simply observing the size of the adult population. Unfortunately, this approach does not consider the environment of the species and most marine stocks show poor functional stock-recruitment relationships. Complex systems (hierarchy) theory suggests that this approach may not be the most appropriate way to simplify the system. Hierarchy theory simplifies the system on the basis of nearly decomposable subsystems, whose boundaries are defined by rates of interactions. It implies that feedback can be captured more readily within than between subsystems and that there is more pattern stability at the subsystem level than at the species level in the system. This implies that feedback is best captured from subsystems, not from changes in the abundance of indiiidual species. Fishermen have traditionally dealt with variability by utilizing one of two harvesting strategies. With the Little Box approach, fishermen target a single species across multiple subsystems, averaging the variability. With the Big Box approach, fishermen target multiple species within a subsystem, relying on the relative stability of that subsystem. We hypothesize if less noise exists at the subsystem level than at the species level, then better feedback can be gained with a Big Box approach to management. Two age-structured, multispecies, bioeconomic models were created to explore the two harvesting rights regimes described above in terms of how well they allow decisionmakers to capture and respond to feedback. The Little Box model allocates rights to single species across subsystems. The Big Box model allocates rights to multiple species within a subsystem. Results of the models illustrate significant advantages for sole ownership compared to open access. The baseline model assumes a sole owner with perfect abilities and high quality and timely information. Results show little difference between Big Box and Little Box management under these perfect conditions. The model was then run under various scenarios to reflect imperfect feedback conditions (e.g., measurement errors, delayed response times). Impairment of the sole owner\u27s ability to respond to feedback and degradation of the quality of feedback resulted in advantages for the Big Box sole owner over the Little Box sole owner

Turning Contention into Collaboration: Engaging Power, Trust, and Learning in Collaborative Networks

Given the complexity and multiplicity of goals in natural resource governance, it is not surprising that policy debates are often characterized by contention and competition. Yet at times adversaries join together to collaborate to find creative solutions not easily achieved in polarizing forums. We employed qualitative interviews and a quantitative network analysis to investigate a collaborative network that formed to develop a resolution to a challenging natural resource management problem, the conservation of vernal pools. We found that power had become distributed among members, trust had formed across core interests, and social learning had resulted in shared understanding and joint solutions. Furthermore, institutions such as who and when new members joined, norms of inclusion and openness, and the use of small working groups helped create the observed patterns of power, trust, and learning

Aquaculture in Shared Waters: Lessons for Diverse and Inclusive Workforce Training

In 2021, the Maine Aquaculture Road Map identified four broad goals as critical to sustainably strengthening Maine’s aquaculture sector over the next ten years, with diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) listed as being important. This commentary reflects on lessons learned from the Aquaculture in Shared Waters (AQSW) training program. We describe the program, share key accomplishments and challenges, and consider opportunities for enabling more inclusive and equitable entry into the aquaculture sector

A Study of the Social and Economic Capacity of Eastern Maine Fishing Communities: How Can Small-Scale Fishing Communities Participate in Catch Share Programs?

This study aimed to assess the degree to which small-scale, fishery-dependent communities in eastern Maine can participate in the catch share system for New England groundfish. Catch share programs can take on a variety of forms, including: harvesting cooperatives, individual quotas, individual transferable quotas, or territorial user fishing rights (Holland and Wiersma 2010). In New England the regional Fishery Management Council implemented a catch share program beginning in 2010, known as sectors, where portions of the total allowable catch have been allocated to groups of fishermen. As managers continue to develop catch shares, and stocks hopefully rebuild, it is critical to assess the degree to which small-scale, fisherydependent communities, like those in eastern Maine, can participate successfully in this management system. This study asks the following question: What is needed for fisherydependent communities in eastern Maine to participate in the New England groundfish catch share system? Our approach was to first document the current and historical participation of Eastern Maine fishermen in the groundfish fishery through a rapid assessment and oral history interviews and then consider how the current catch share system in place creates barriers and opportunities for future participation by these communities

Tidal Power Development in Maine: Stakeholder Identification and Perceptions of Engagement

Development of renewable energy affects or is affected by numerous stakeholders. Understanding who the stakeholders are and how they are engaged in the process is necessary for improving the responsible development of renewable energy technologies. Using structured community interviews and in-depth ethnographic research (semi-structured interviews, informal interviews, observations, and document review), we identified and characterized the most salient stakeholders associated with tidal power development in Maine and documented stakeholder perceptions of developer engagement strategies. Stakeholder characterization was facilitated using a framework by Mitchell et al. (The Academy of Management Review 22:853–886, 1997) that characterizes salient stakeholders using attributes of power, urgency, and legitimacy. Key stakeholders identified include fishermen, community members, tribes, regulators, developers, and scientists. Fishermen and regulators are definitive stakeholders, with legitimacy, power, and urgency in the process. Tribes are considered dominant stakeholders; they have legitimacy and power, but their interests are, at this time, not viewed as urgent. Scientists are considered to have urgency and power. The developers viewed their stakeholder engagement strategy as open and transparent. Community stakeholders, regulators, and fishermen generally perceived the developer\u27s approach as effective; they noted the company\u27s accessibility and their efforts to engage stakeholders early and often. Given the dynamic nature of stakeholder salience, our findings highlight the importance of engaging dominant stakeholders so that future conflict can be more easily avoided as new information develops. Our approach can be used to inform stakeholder identification and engagement research in other renewable energy contexts

Understanding and Informing Permitting Decisions for Tidal Energy Development Using an Adaptive Management Framework

Marine hydrokinetic (MHK) energy offers a promising new source of renewable ocean energy. However, the young industry is faced with significant challenges. Most notable is the challenge of regulatory uncertainty that is thought to hamper the successful deployment of new tidal energy technologies. Adaptive management may be one approach to deal with uncertainty and inform permitting decisions for hydrokinetic projects. In this study, we apply the concept of adaptive management to the Cobscook Bay Tidal Energy Project in Maine to better understand and inform permitting decisions. Using a social science approach of observation, interviews, and document analysis, we examine (1) agency roles and authority, (2) agency interactions, (3) regulatory change, and (4) challenges faced in the regulatory and permitting process for MHK development at the federal and state level. We found four institutional factors favorable to an adaptive approach. These include experimentation and learning, institutionalized choice to correct avoidable error, a strong commitment to interagency coordination, and an emphasis on early proactive engagement with project developers. We also identified institutional challenges or vulnerabilities. These include conflicting agency cultures, high financial costs, and long timeframes associated with baseline data collection. Lessons learned from this study can assist regulators, policymakers, and project developers design and implement an actively adaptive management approach that can move new renewable ocean energy development forward in a way that is socially acceptable and environmentally responsible

In Their Own Words: Fishermen\u27s Perspectives of Community Resilience

Maine’s fishing communities are experiencing the cumulative effects of fish stock depletion, state and federal regulations, coastal development and demographic changes, and rising fuel and energy costs. Legally, federal fisheries managers must minimize adverse economic impacts of fishery regulations on fishing communities, yet too often data with which to do this are insufficient (Ingles and Sepez 2007). For example, National Standard 8 of the Magnuson Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, the federal legislation governing the management of marine resources in the U.S., requires that managers “take into account the importance of fishery resources to fishing communities” and “provide sustained participation of” and “minimize adverse economic impacts on” such communities (Clay and Olson 2008). The National Environmental Policy Act also requires social impact assessments of federal actions, including the cumulative effects of action on the “human environment.” In response to these legal mandates and data gaps, social scientists have begun to develop and refine methodological approaches for defining fishing communities and conducting social impact assessments. An important component of social impact assessment is understanding the vulnerability and resilience of fishing communities (Clay and Olson 2008). In 2010-2012, with funding from Maine Sea Grant, we explored how those living within fishing communities understand their resilience. We were especially interested in understanding the particular threats fishermen are facing and how they are responding to them. This report summarizes our findings, with additional background information on resilience and recommendations for Maine communities

Maine Tidal Power Initiative: Environmental Impact Protocols for Tidal Power

As a result of ongoing climate change, the pressure for the development of new sources of renewable energy has increased. It is extremely likely that climate change is caused by anthropogenic activities. Thus even if dramatic gains are made in energy efficiency; the addition of novel renewable energy sources is critical to reducing fossil fuel emissions. Even current goals for a reduction in the growth of greenhouse gas emissions mean that all possible low-carbon or non-carbon emitting energy sources be considered. In the marine environment, energy in tidal currents, waves, and thermal structure may be extracted to produce electricity. These energy sources are a critical element in the overall renewable portfolio since, unlike wind and solar energy, both marine thermal and tidal energy are reliable additions to the overall electrical grid. In the case of tidal energy, the contribution of periodic but reliable sources of renewable energy becomes increasingly critical as wind and solar penetration in the grid increase. In a high renewable energy penetration grid, a resource like tidal energy does not provide the same base load capacity as, for example, a nuclear power plant. However, tidal energy can have the effect of reducing the size of either storage or peaking capacity that is required for grid stability by providing power for recovery of dispatchable loads. However, as an immature technology, significant questions remain regarding basic questions like the scale of the potential resource, the impact on sediment transport, the effects on fish populations and communities, and the ability to design a system which is acceptable by the people in the associated communities. The objectives of the funded project were to examine tidal power development in Maine from all perspectives: engineering, resource assessment, biological effects, and social dimensions. Resource and environmental research focused on data collection for the Cobscook Bay/Western Passage, possibly the most viable commercial tidal energy site in the US, tidal power sites along with initial evaluation of the suitability of the approach for at least two other tidal development sites in Maine. Concomitantly, alternative energy research is used as a basis of education for a number of graduate and undergraduate students at the University of Maine and Maine Maritime Academy. The Maine Tidal Power Initiative has developed resource and environmental assessment protocols in conjunction with the deployment of a specific marine hydrokinetic device. The protocols are transferrable throughout Maine and the US to evaluate tidal energy resources and better understand the potential impact of this development on the environment. Again, site-specific social science and environmental research focused on the Cobscook Bay/Western Passage area near Eastport Maine. The protocols and methods developed at these sites have also been used to perform initial scoping reviews of locations in Castine Harbor and Wiscasset, Maine that represent a more modest and more typical small scale energy resource. Specific barrier issues which have been addressed for the industry are technologies and protocols for measuring and modeling tidal flows, responses of fishes to those flows, and people interacting in these environments. Measuring tidal flows is critical to the key economic driver for this industry, the size of the potential resource. The second barrier issue is the need for methods for measuring the impact of marine hydrokinetic (MHK) devices on fish. Acoustic methods have been used with ground truth validation from trawls. The protocols developed in this project have already had a significant impact on the approach that has been taken at other sites. Finally the assessment of the human community response to these technologies and impact on community cohesion and participation is perhaps the largest single barrier to the acceptance of the projects. This work also has the potential to be replicated at other sites, although in both the case of the environmental effects and the social response to these projects, details of the species impacted and the economic and social environment are the ultimate determinants of impact and acceptance. The technology focus for most of this work has been the cross-flow turbine developed by Ocean Renewable Power Company. Testing in the University of Maine tow tank has allowed a large design space to be explored for the optimization of the commercial turbine design. The design code developed for the project was validated using this data set. Both the design code and the data will be placed in a public repository. The most important outcome of the turbine design portion of the work is some general design parameters that can be used to assist in the site assessment and for benchmarking of proprietary designs. The design as well as the data is available for resource assessment and design comparisons. The appeal of this turbine design is that the potential exists for a low solidity turbine with lower tip speed ratios, which will have good performance. The low solidity and tip speed ratio is likely to reduce the risk of fish impacts and thus reduce environmental impact and community resistance to these technologies. The need for low carbon energy sources is undeniable. Resistance to large-scale renewable energy development also continues to increase. The overall approach to this project, where the design of the system considers environmental impacts and social acceptance from the initial engineering design stages and continues with an adaptive management scheme, is the only option for addressing energy needs at the scale required