Technologies for climate change adaptation: agricultural sector

This Guidebook presents a selection of technologies for climate change adaptation in the agricultural sector. A set of twenty two adaptation technologies are showcased that are primarily based on the principals of agroecology, but also include scientific technologies of climate and biological sciences complemented with important sociological and institutional capacity building processes that are required to make adaptation function. The technologies cover monitoring and forecasting the climate, sustainable water use and management, soil management, sustainable crop management, seed conservation, sustainable forest management and sustainable livestock management. Technologies that tend to homogenize the natural environment and agricultural production have low possibilities of success in conditions of environmental stress that are likely to result from climate change. On the other hand, technologies that allow for, and indeed promote, diversity are more likely to provide a strategy which strengthens agricultural production in the face of uncertain future climate change scenarios. In this sense, the twenty two technologies showcased in this Guidebook have been selected because they facilitate the conservation and restoration of diversity while at the same time providing opportunities for increasing agricultural productivity. Many of these technologies are not new to agricultural production practices, but they are implemented based on assessment of current and possible future impacts of climate change in a particular location. Agro-ecology is an approach that encompasses concepts of sustainable production and biodiversity promotion and therefore provides a useful framework for identifying and selecting appropriate adaptation technologies for the agricultural sector. The Guidebook provides a systematic analysis of the most relevant information available on climate change adaptation technologies in the agriculture sector. It has been compiled based on a literature review of key publications, journal articles, and e-platforms, and by drawing on documented experiences sourced from a range of organizations working on projects and programmes concerned with climate change adaptation technologies in the agricultural sector. Its geographic scope is focused on developing countries where high levels of poverty, agricultural production, climate variability and biological diversity currently intersect. Key concepts around climate change adaptation are not universally agreed. It is therefore important to understand local contexts – especially social and cultural norms - when working with national and sub-national stakeholders to make informed decisions about appropriate technology options. Thus, decision-making processes should be participative, facilitated, and consensus-building oriented and should be based on the following key guiding principles: increasing awareness and knowledge, strengthening institutions, protecting natural resources, providing financial assistance and developing context-specific strategies. For decision-making the Community–Based Adaptation framework is proposed for creating inclusive governance that engages a range of stakeholders directly with local or district government and national coordinating bodies, and facilitates participatory planning, monitoring and implementation of adaptation activities. Seven criteria are suggested for the prioritization of adaptation technologies: (i) The extent to which the technology maintains or strengthens biological diversity and is environmentally sustainable; (ii) The extent to which the technology facilitates access to information systems and awareness of climate change information; (iii) Whether the technology support water, carbon and nutrient cycles and enables stable and/or increased productivity; (iv) Income-generating potential, cost-benefit analysis and contribution to improved equity; (v) Respect for cultural diversity and facilitation of inter-cultural exchange; (vi) Potential for integration into regional and national policies and can be scaled-up; (vii) The extent to which the technology builds formal and information institutions and social networks. Finally, recommendations are set out for practitioners and policy makers: • There is an urgent need for improved climate modelling and forecasting which can provide a basis for informed decision-making and the implementation of adaptation strategies. This should include traditional knowledge. • Information is also required to better understand the behaviour of plants, animals, pests and diseases as they react to climate change. • Potential changes in economic and social systems in the future under different climate scenarios should also be investigated so that the implications of adaptation strategy and planning choices are better understood. • It is important to secure effective flows of information through appropriate dissemination channels. This is vital for building adaptive capacity and decision-making processes. • Improved analysis of adaptation technologies is required to show how they can contribute to building adaptive capacity and resilience in the agricultural sector. This information needs to be compiled and disseminated for a range of stakeholders from local to national level. • Relationships between policy makers, researchers and communities should be built so that technologies and planning processes are developed in partnership, responding to producers’ needs and integrating their knowledge

Contribution of agroforestry systems to sustaining biodiversity in fragmented forest landscapes

Agroforestry systems maintain intermediate levels of biodiversity between natural forests and purely agricultural land-uses and may therefore increase connectivity or sustain biodiversity in fragmented forest landscapes. This hypothesis is tested by comparing the species richness and similarity in species composition between forest fragments and agroforestry systems in two landscapes in Guatemala. Connectivity indices were calculated based on the similarity of biodiversity held between forest and agroforestry. Tree and ant species richness was significantly higher for forest than agroforestry land-uses. Conversely, species richness of leaf hoppers (Cicadellidae) was lower in forests compared to agroforests. Chao-Sorensen estimates indicated a high proportion of ant species were shared (0.78-0.99) between different agroforestry land-uses and forest fragments, but lower proportions of tree (0.39 – 0.55) and leaf hopper species (0.42-0.65). Including the contribution of agroforestry systems in estimates of forest connectivity, based on their biodiversity relative to forest, substantially increased the land area rated with high connectivity (by 100-300%) and forest edge connectivity (by 70-170%), but had negligible impact on land area rated as dense forest. The major forest fragments in the two landscapes were linked by land rated as medium connectivity for forest biodiversity. Thus, agroforestry contributes to the capacity of the landscape to support biodiversity, but only partially increases connectivity between forest fragments in the two landscapes studied. If these benefits are to be sustained, consideration needs to be given to the incentives for land-owners to maintain agroforestry systems

Lessons on enabling African smallholder farmers, especially women and youth, to benefit from sustainable agricultural intensification

The papers in this Special Issue on what works and what is unlikely to work to enable poorer smallholders, especially women and youth, to benefit from Sustainable Agricultural Intensification (SAI) come from the Sustainable Agricultural Intensification Research and Learning programme. Three aspects of SAI are considered: (1) the equity of outcomes from SAI and how decisions to support equity can be better informed; (2) the social, economic and environmental trade-offs associated with SAI, how they are perceived and can be managed; and (3) how farmers access to services and information needed to implement SAI can be facilitated. Whether considering the gender and generational equities of participation in SAI or how trade-offs limit adoption of SAI, it is the local social, economic and environmental conditions that determine the outcome. We conclude that participation of local stakeholders in the adaptation of SAI to local social, economic and environmental conditions is critical to enabling poorer smallholders, women and youth to benefit from SAI. While some tools and processes are presented that may support this, there remains a challenge as to how such processes can be integrated into national policies and institutions

Tree diversity on sustainably certified and conventional coffee farms in Central America

Shade coffee agroforestry systems have the potential to support biodiversity. Sustainable certification of coffee has been promoted as a means to provide incentives to maintain these systems, but as yet there is little evidence if this is effective. We analyzed tree diversity on smallholder organic and conventional farms in buffer zones of three conservation areas in Costa Rica, Guatemala and Nicaragua (the later included some large-scale conventional and Rainforest Alliance certified farms). Organic farms had greater farm level tree species richness and Shannon diversity compared to conventional farms; estimated native tree species richness across the landscape was probably greater on organic farms than conventional in Nicaragua (48 vs. 28 species respectively) and possibly in Guatemala (23 vs. 15 species respectively). Organic farms had higher shade levels and more tree strata than conventional farms. In Guatemala and Nicaragua tree species composition was not closely related to whether farms were organic or conventional, although within composition clusters, organic farms tended to have greater diversity. In contrast, organic and conventional farms in Costa Rica mostly belonged to different tree species clusters. In Nicaragua most large-scale farms, and all Rainforest certified farms, formed a distinct species composition cluster with presence of old-growth forest species and within which Rainforest farms had greater diversity. Tree species composition of the shade seems to be mainly due to management history; but certification effectively differentiates those farms with greater tree diversity. Longer-term monitoring is required to determine whether certification can be an incentive to conserve or expand biodiverse coffee agroforestry systems within the buffer zones around conservation areas

Adoption by adaptation: Moving from conservation agriculture to conservation practices

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a Sustainable Agricultural Intensification strategy based on minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil coverage by living or dead biomass, and diversification of crop rotations. We reviewed the literature on benefits, trade-offs, adoption and adaptation of CA in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). While CA can improve soils and sustain crop yields, benefits are inconsistent and there are trade-offs with crop residue use, weeds and insect pests, labour demands and short-term yield penalties. Adoption rates by smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa are generally low. We hypothesize that underlying adoption constraints are 1) the magnitude of transformation of management practices required from farmers moving to CA, 2) the multiple inherent trade-offs associated with CA practices and 3) the incompatibility of CA practices to local conditions. We suggest CA adoption in SSA could be improved by focusing the promotion of CA to environments where it best fits, or by facilitating smallholders’ adaptation of the practices of CA to respond to their conditions and constraints. We, therefore, propose to move from Conservation Agriculture to Conservation Practices by: (A) identifying and overcoming locally important CA trade-offs through adaptations and complementary practices, and (B) finding farm-specific optimal combinations of practices in terms of feasibility and benefits

Shade and agronomic intensification in coffee agroforestry systems: trade-off or synergy?

Despite many years of research, there is still a lack of consensus as to the nature of the relationship between shade trees and agronomic intensification in coffee agroforestry systems. While some studies find un-shaded intensively managed coffee is the most productive, other studies find no trade-off between shade characteristics and productivity. Our study of 179 farms from the main coffee growing regions of Costa Rica and Guatemala analysed how shade affected the productive response of coffee to intensification of agronomic management. Four levels of coffee productivity were differentiated for each country associated with three levels of shade development in Costa Rica and two levels in Guatemala. The highest coffee productivity group was associated with medium shade development in both countries. High shade groups had low productivity, but very low productivity groups were associated with low (Costa Rica) or medium (Guatemala) shade. Medium and high productivity farms were associated with high elevation, lower rainfall and regions with higher coffee prices. Yield with a moderate level of investment (720-1500 USD−1) and with medium shade (LAI 0.55-1.1) was not significantly different from yields with higher investment or lower shade levels. The increase in yield with increasing N fertilizer application was similar under low, medium and high LAI, but the mean productivity significantly lower with high LAI. Agronomic intensification to increase productivity is equally effective for low and medium shade systems (LAI <1.1); low productivity farms may have high shade or low shade but are mainly limited by low investment. Intensification of production is compatible with medium shade levels that should deliver broader ecosystem services but achieving this depends on coffee prices enabling this investment

CAMBIOS EN LA FERTILIDAD DEL SUELO, PRODUCCIÓN DE BIOMASA Y BALANCE DE NITRÓGENO EN SISTEMAS AGROFORESTALES CON CAFÉ EN NICARAGUA

Se estableció un experimento de un sistema agroforestal con el cultivo de café en el año 2001 en el Municipio de Masatepe, Nicaragua; estableciéndose en las parcelas principales especies arbóreas leguninosas y no leguminosas y en las subparcelas niveles de fertilizantes orgánicos y químicos aplicados a diferentes cantidades para el manejo de la fertilidad del suelo, enfermedades, plagas insectiles y malezas, con el propósito de establecer los cambios en la fertilidad del suelo, la producción de residuos vegetales y el balance de Nitrógeno. Para la determinación de las variables del suelo, mineralización del nitrógeno, carbono y biomasa microbiana se extrajo por parcela experimental un volumen de suelo para constituir una muestra compuesta. Para la producción de biomasa fueron muestreados dos árboles por parcela y determinados los contenidos de N; fue considerada la cantidad de N aportados por la adición de fertilizantes orgánicas y químicos. El N extraído por medio de la cosecha (grano uva) fue determinado para incluirlo en el balance. Los resultados muestran que se produce una menor acidez del suelo, y estadísticamente diferente en el Orgánico Intensivo comparado al manejo Convencional Moderado, y similar comportamiento en Fósforo, Potasio y la biomasa microbiana. En tanto la CIC, el N y el C total, resultó menor en el 2004  con respecto al 2001, en ambos años no hubo diferencias estadísticas entre los tratamientos. La tasa de mineralizacióndel N es menor en el tratamiento a pleno sol con fertilizante químico con respecto a los tratamientos con sombra arbórea; mientras que los fertilizantes orgánicos muestran ser diferentes estadísticamente con respecto a fertilizantes  químicos aplicados al suelo. Las cantidades de residuos vegetales producidos por la poda es dado por Inga. laurina, sin embargo, en el raleo Tabebuia. rosea la supera en esta actividad. El balance de Nitrógeno resulta negativo en los niveles de fertilizante Moderado Convencional y Orgánico Moderado dado que las extracciones por cosecha de los frutos de café y extracciones de leña son superiores a las adiciones de N vía fertilización provocando un empobrecimiento de este elemento mineral en el suelo. Palabras clave: Orgánico, Convencional, Leguminosas, Balance de Nitrógeno, Biomasa, Simarouba glauca, Tabebuia rosea, Inga laurina, Samanea sama

CAMBIOS EN LA FERTILIDAD DEL SUELO, PRODUCCIÓN DE BIOMASA Y BALANCE DE NITRÓGENO EN SISTEMAS AGROFORESTALES CON CAFÉ EN NICARAGUA

A coffee agroforestry experiment was established in 2001 in the Municipality of Masatepe, Nicaragua; main treatments were legume and non-legume arboreal species with subplots of intensive and moderate use of organic and conventional management of fertility, pests, diseases and weeds. Soil chemical characteristics, mineralization of nitrogen, carbon and microbial biomass were measured in each plot for a composite soil sample. To measure biomass production two trees per plots were pruned and N content determined. The N balance was calculated by determining the extracted N in the coffee berries, firewood production compared to the amount of N contributed by organic and chemical fertilizers. The results show that acidity fell under intensive organic management compared to moderate conventional, while phosphorus, potassium and the microbial biomass were all higher under organic than conventional. The CIC, total N and total C, were all lower in the 2004 with respect to the 2001. In both years there were no statistical differences between the treatments. The rate of mineralization of the N was lower under the sun treatment total with respect to the treatments with arboreal shade; and higher the intensive organic management than conventional management. The amounts of residues produced by pruning are greatest for Inga laurina, nevertheless, in the year when trees were thinned abebuia. rosea it surpasses it. The nitrogen balance was negative for Moderate Conventional and Organic Moderate management under Inga. laurina since the extractions by coffee berries harvest and firewood are superior to the additions of N via fertilization causing an impoverishment of this mineral element in the ground.DOI: 10.5377/calera.v10i14.22Se estableci&oacute; un experimento de un sistema agroforestal con el cultivo de caf&eacute; en el a&ntilde;o 2001 en el Municipio de Masatepe, Nicaragua; estableci&eacute;ndose en las parcelas principales especies arb&oacute;reas leguninosas y no leguminosas y en las subparcelas niveles de fertilizantes org&aacute;nicos y qu&iacute;micos aplicados a diferentes cantidades para el manejo de la fertilidad del suelo, enfermedades, plagas insectiles y malezas, con el prop&oacute;sito de establecer los cambios en la fertilidad del suelo, la producci&oacute;n de residuos vegetales y el balance de Nitr&oacute;geno. Para la determinaci&oacute;n de las variables del suelo, mineralizaci&oacute;n del nitr&oacute;geno, carbono y biomasa microbiana se extrajo por parcela experimental un volumen de suelo para constituir una muestra compuesta. Para la producci&oacute;n de biomasa fueron muestreados dos &aacute;rboles por parcela y determinados los contenidos de N; fue considerada la cantidad de N aportados por la adici&oacute;n de fertilizantes org&aacute;nicas y qu&iacute;micos. El N extra&iacute;do por medio de la cosecha (grano uva) fue determinado para incluirlo en el balance. Los resultados muestran que se produce una menor acidez del suelo, y estad&iacute;sticamente diferente en el Org&aacute;nico Intensivo comparado al manejo Convencional Moderado, y similar comportamiento en F&oacute;sforo, Potasio y la biomasa microbiana. En tanto la CIC, el N y el C total, result&oacute; menor en el 2004 con respecto al 2001, en ambos a&ntilde;os no hubo diferencias estad&iacute;sticas entre los tratamientos. La tasa de mineralizaci&oacute;n del N es menor en el tratamiento a pleno sol con fertilizante qu&iacute;mico con respecto a los tratamientos con sombra arb&oacute;rea; mientras que los fertilizantes org&aacute;nicos muestran ser diferentes estad&iacute;sticamente con respecto a fertilizantes qu&iacute;micos aplicados al suelo. Las cantidades de residuos vegetales producidos por la poda es dado por Inga. laurina, sin embargo, en el raleo Tabebuia. rosea la supera en esta actividad. El balance de Nitr&oacute;geno resulta negativo en los niveles de fertilizante Moderado Convencional y Org&aacute;nico Moderado dado que las extracciones por cosecha de los frutos de caf&eacute; y extracciones de le&ntilde;a son superiores a las adiciones de N v&iacute;a fertilizaci&oacute;n provocando un empobrecimiento de este elemento mineral en el suelo. Palabras clave: Org&aacute;nico, Convencional, Leguminosas, Balance de Nitr&oacute;geno, Biomasa, Simarouba glauca, Tabebuia rosea, Inga laurina, Samanea samanDOI: 10.5377/calera.v10i14.2

Café Mesoamericano: desarrollo de una estrategia de adaptación al cambio climático

La producción de café en Mesoamérica es parte importante de la economía y la sociedad, al ser eje del bienestar de miles de familias y contribuir significativamente al PIB agrícola de diversos países. Pero las proyecciones indican que es en México y América Central donde el cambio climático tendrá los impactos más severos. Los modelos climáticos y los indicadores de aptitud climática del nicho en relación con el cultivo muestran cambios considerables, tanto en la calidad del café como en las zonas altitudinales apropiadas para la producción. Si hoy no se hacen esfuerzos para fortalecer la capacidad adaptativa, probablemente habrá grandes pérdidas económicas en toda la cadena de abastecimiento de café, así como la desaparición de importantes servicios ambientales