25 research outputs found
Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome
The sequence of the human genome encodes the genetic instructions for human physiology, as well as rich information about human evolution. In 2001, the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium reported a draft sequence of the euchromatic portion of the human genome. Since then, the international collaboration has worked to convert this draft into a genome sequence with high accuracy and nearly complete coverage. Here, we report the result of this finishing process. The current genome sequence (Build 35) contains 2.85 billion nucleotides interrupted by only 341 gaps. It covers ∼99% of the euchromatic genome and is accurate to an error rate of ∼1 event per 100,000 bases. Many of the remaining euchromatic gaps are associated with segmental duplications and will require focused work with new methods. The near-complete sequence, the first for a vertebrate, greatly improves the precision of biological analyses of the human genome including studies of gene number, birth and death. Notably, the human enome seems to encode only 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes. The genome sequence reported here should serve as a firm foundation for biomedical research in the decades ahead
Cytomegalovirus vectors expressing Plasmodium knowlesi antigens induce immune responses that delay parasitemia upon sporozoite challenge.
The development of a sterilizing vaccine against malaria remains one of the highest priorities for global health research. While sporozoite vaccines targeting the pre-erythrocytic stage show great promise, it has not been possible to maintain efficacy long-term, likely due to an inability of these vaccines to maintain effector memory T cell responses in the liver. Vaccines based on human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) might overcome this limitation since vectors based on rhesus CMV (RhCMV), the homologous virus in rhesus macaques (RM), elicit and indefinitely maintain high frequency, non-exhausted effector memory T cells in extralymphoid tissues, including the liver. Moreover, RhCMV strain 68-1 elicits CD8+ T cells broadly recognizing unconventional epitopes exclusively restricted by MHC-II and MHC-E. To evaluate the potential of these unique immune responses to protect against malaria, we expressed four Plasmodium knowlesi (Pk) antigens (CSP, AMA1, SSP2/TRAP, MSP1c) in RhCMV 68-1 or in Rh189-deleted 68-1, which additionally elicits canonical MHC-Ia-restricted CD8+ T cells. Upon inoculation of RM with either of these Pk Ag expressing RhCMV vaccines, we obtained T cell responses to each of the four Pk antigens. Upon challenge with Pk sporozoites we observed a delayed appearance of blood stage parasites in vaccinated RM consistent with a 75-80% reduction of parasite release from the liver. Moreover, the Rh189-deleted RhCMV/Pk vectors elicited sterile protection in one RM. Once in the blood, parasite growth was not affected. In contrast to T cell responses induced by Pk infection, RhCMV vectors maintained sustained T cell responses to all four malaria antigens in the liver post-challenge. The delayed appearance of blood stage parasites is thus likely due to a T cell-mediated inhibition of liver stage parasite development. As such, this vaccine approach can be used to efficiently test new T cell antigens, improve current vaccines targeting the liver stage and complement vaccines targeting erythrocytic antigens
Natural Killer Cell Evasion Is Essential for Infection by Rhesus Cytomegalovirus
<div><p>The natural killer cell receptor NKG2D activates NK cells by engaging one of several ligands (NKG2DLs) belonging to either the MIC or ULBP families. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) UL16 and UL142 counteract this activation by retaining NKG2DLs and US18 and US20 act via lysomal degradation but the importance of NK cell evasion for infection is unknown. Since NKG2DLs are highly conserved in rhesus macaques, we characterized how NKG2DL interception by rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) impacts infection <i>in vivo</i>. Interestingly, RhCMV lacks homologs of UL16 and UL142 but instead employs Rh159, the homolog of UL148, to prevent NKG2DL surface expression. Rh159 resides in the endoplasmic reticulum and retains several NKG2DLs whereas UL148 does not interfere with NKG2DL expression. Deletion of Rh159 releases human and rhesus MIC proteins, but not ULBPs, from retention while increasing NK cell stimulation by infected cells. Importantly, RhCMV lacking Rh159 cannot infect CMV-naïve animals unless CD8+ cells, including NK cells, are depleted. However, infection can be rescued by replacing Rh159 with HCMV UL16 suggesting that Rh159 and UL16 perform similar functions <i>in vivo</i>. We therefore conclude that cytomegaloviral interference with NK cell activation is essential to establish but not to maintain chronic infection.</p></div
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Late gene expression-deficient cytomegalovirus vectors elicit conventional T cells that do not protect against SIV
Rhesus cytomegalovirus-based (RhCMV-based) vaccine vectors induce immune responses that protect ~60% of rhesus macaques (RMs) from SIVmac239 challenge. This efficacy depends on induction of effector memory-based (EM-biased) CD8+ T cells recognizing SIV peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex-E (MHC-E) instead of MHC-Ia. The phenotype, durability, and efficacy of RhCMV/SIV-elicited cellular immune responses were maintained when vector spread was severely reduced by deleting the antihost intrinsic immunity factor phosphoprotein 71 (pp71). Here, we examined the impact of an even more stringent attenuation strategy on vector-induced immune protection against SIV. Fusion of the FK506-binding protein (FKBP) degradation domain to Rh108, the orthologue of the essential human CMV (HCMV) late gene transcription factor UL79, generated RhCMV/SIV vectors that conditionally replicate only when the FK506 analog Shield-1 is present. Despite lacking in vivo dissemination and reduced innate and B cell responses to vaccination, Rh108-deficient 68-1 RhCMV/SIV vectors elicited high-frequency, durable, EM-biased, SIV-specific T cell responses in RhCMV-seropositive RMs at doses of ≥ 1 × 106 PFU. Strikingly, elicited CD8+ T cells exclusively targeted MHC-Ia-restricted epitopes and failed to protect against SIVmac239 challenge. Thus, Rh108-dependent late gene expression is required for both induction of MHC-E-restricted T cells and protection against SIV
Deletion of Rh159 rescues intracellular transport and surface expression of MICA and MICB upon RhCMV infection.
<p><b>A)</b> Comparison of NKG2DL surface expression upon infection with RhCMV or ΔRh159. U373-NKG2DL cells were infected with RhCMV (blue) or ΔRh159 (red) (MOI = 3) for 48 h. Cell surface levels of NKG2DL or TfR were determined by flow cytometry, using specific antibodies and compared to isotype control (dotted). Depicted is NKG2DL or TfR surface expression on infected cells gated for RhCMV IE2<sup>+</sup> expression. The results shown are representative of three or more independent experiments. <b>B)</b> Biosynthesis and maturation of NKG2DL in uninfected U373-NKG2DL cells or upon infection with RhCMV or ΔRh159. U373-NKG2DL cells were uninfected (NI), infected with RhCMV (WT) or ΔRh159 (MOI = 3) for 24 h, verified by light microscopy as having 100% CPE, then metabolically labeled with [35S]cysteine and [35S]methionine for 30 min prior to chasing the label for the indicated times. The indicated NKG2DLs were immunoprecipitated from cell lysates with specific mAbs. Immunoprecipitates were split and digested with EndoH (+) or mock treated (-) then analyzed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography.</p
Rh159 interferes with intracellular transport of NKG2DL.
<p><b>A)</b> Association with Rh159 prevents intracellular transport of MICB. U373-MICB cells were transduced with adenovectors (MOI = 80) expressing either GFP (AdGFP) or FLAG-tagged Rh159 (AdRh159FL) under control of tetracycline-dependent transactivator provided by co-transduced AdtTA (MOI = 20). At 24 hpi cells were metabolically labeled for 30 min with [35S]cysteine + [35S]methionine. Upon chasing the label for the indicated times (h), cells were lysed and MICB was immunoprecipitated with anti–MICB mAb. Precipitates were either digested with EndoH (+) or mock treated (-) followed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. (S) indicates EndoH-deglycosylated proteins. <b>B)</b> Rh159 co-immunoprecipitates with MICB. U373-ULBP3 (ULBP3, left panel) or U373-MICB (MICB, right panel) cells were lysed at 48 h post-transduction with AdRh159FL (Rh159) or an adenovector expressing FLAG-tagged SVV ORF 61 (SVV61) used as a negative control. MICB and ULBP3 were immunoprecipitated with anti–MICB and anti-ULBP3 mouse and goat mAbs, respectively, then immunoblotted with mouse anti-FLAG mAb. The mouse IgG heavy chain (55kDa) is indicated (HC). Input lanes were loaded with 10% total lysate used in immunoprecipitation and immunoblotted with mAbs for FLAG and GAPDH. The results shown are representative of two independent experiments. <b>C)</b> Rh159 reduces steady state levels of MICB. U373-MICB cells were lysed at 48 h post-transduction with the indicated Ad-vectors. Lysates were digested with EndoH (+) or mock treated (-) then immunoblotted with mAbs for MICB, FLAG or GAPDH. Note that both MICB and Rh159 are EndoH sensitive consistent with ER localization. The results shown are representative of two independent experiments. <b>D-E)</b> Rh159 reduces surface expression of MICA, MICB, ULBP1 and ULBP2 but not ULBP3. U373-NKG2DL cells were transduced with AdRh159FL or AdGFP as in A) but for 48 h. Cells were then lysed and immunoblotted with mAbs for FLAG and GAPDH (<b>D</b>), or stained with antibodies specific for the indicated proteins, or isotype control (dotted) and analyzed by flow cytometry. The results shown are representative of three or more independent experiments.</p
Primary infection of rhesus macaques requires evasion of NK cells by Rh159.
<p><b>A)</b> Rh159 is required for superinfection. At day 0, a RhCMV+ RM was infected subcutaneously (s.c.) with 5x10<sup>6</sup> PFU of ΔRh159. The SIVgag-specific T cell response in PBMC was monitored by ICCS for CD69, TNFα and IFNγ using overlapping (by 4AA) 15mer peptide mixes. Results are shown as a percentage of total memory CD4<sup>+</sup> or CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells. No responses above background were measured. <b>B)</b> Rh159 is required for primary infection. Two RhCMV-naïve animals were inoculated s.c. with 5x10<sup>6</sup> PFU ΔRh159 and SIVgag- and RhCMV IE-specific T cells were monitored as in A). In addition, SIVgag-specific CD8+ T cell responses to 2 MHC-E restricted (Gag69 and Gag120) and 2 MHC-II-restricted (Gag53 and Gag73) supertope peptides were quantified by flow cytometric ICS. Starting on day 63, RM were treated with anti-CD8 antibody CM-T807 to deplete CD8<sup>+</sup> cells and RM were re-inoculated with 5x10<sup>6</sup> PFU of ΔRh159 on day 64. <b>C)</b> The relative frequencies of CD8<sup>+</sup> small CD3- lymphocytes in whole blood (WB) of each animal were monitored during CM-T807 treatment.</p
Cell surface expression of NKG2DLs is not affected by HCMV UL148.
<p><b>A)</b> Alignment of Rh159 and UL148. Intensity of purple shading indicates level of sequence conservation (Jalview 2 [<a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1005868#ppat.1005868.ref055" target="_blank">55</a>]). <b>B</b>) MICB maturation is not affected by UL148. U373-MICB cells were transduced with AdCtrl (empty vector) (Ctrl), or AdUL148 containing a C-terminal V5 tag (UL148) at an MOI of 10 or 80, or AdRh159FL (Rh159) (MOI = 10) together with AdtTA (MOI = 2.5) for 48 h. UL148 and Rh159 expression was verified by immunoblot using anti-V5 antibody or anti-FLAG antibody, respectively, with antibodies to GAPDH providing a loading control. The mature MICB protein of 67 kDA is designated M whereas I refers to immature MICB retained in the ER by Rh159. Results shown are representative of two experiments. <b>C)</b> UL148 does not affect cell surface expression of NKG2DL. U373-NKG2DL cells were transduced with AdUL148 (blue) or AdCtrl (black) (MOI = 80) and, at 48 h, cells were harvested and analyzed for NKG2DL and TfR surface expression compared to isotype controls (dotted) by flow-cytometry. <b>D)</b> UL148 expression in C) was verified by immunoblot in each of the samples using anti-V5 antibody. GAPDH served as a loading control.</p
MICB is retained in the ER and associates with Rh159 in RhCMV infected cells.
<p><b>A)</b> Immature MICB is enriched in RhCMV-infected cells. U373-MICB cells were infected with RhCMV (MOI = 3) for 12 or 24 h or left uninfected prior to lysis in 1% NP40. Cell lysates were treated with Endoglycosidase H (E), PNGase F (P), or digestion buffer alone (-), separated by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotted with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to MICB or GAPDH. Mature glycosylated MICB (67kDa) is EndoH resistant (R), whereas immature MICB (I) remains EndoH sensitive with an apparent MW of 43kDa upon EndoH treatment (S) indicative of ER retention. <b>B)</b> RhCMV inhibits intracellular transport of MICB. U373-MICBs were infected with RhCMV (WT) (MOI = 3) for 24 h (visualization by light microscopy confirmed 100% cytopathic effect (CPE)) or left uninfected (NI) followed by metabolically labeling with [35S]cysteine and [35S]methionine for 30 min. The label was then chased for the indicated times (h), cells were lysed and MICB was immunoprecipitated from cell lysates using a MICB specific antibody. Precipitates were either digested with EndoH (+) or mock treated (-) followed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. Stars (*) indicate an EndoH-sensitive protein co-precipitating with MICB in infected cells. <b>C-D)</b> Isolation and identification of Rh159 co-immunoprecipitating with MICB. U373-MICB cells were infected with RhCMV (WT) or left non-infected (NI) as above and cells were lysed at 48 hpi. MICB was immunoprecipitated with anti–MICB mAb, the immunoprecipitates were separated by SDS-PAGE, and proteins visualized by Coomassie Blue staining. The IgG heavy chain (55kDa) is indicated. The 43kDa protein (*) was excised from the gel and digested with trypsin. <b>D)</b> Mass-spectrometric analysis by LC-MS/MS identified tryptic peptides corresponding to Rh159 (gray shaded boxes). The predicted amino acid sequence of Rh159 contains a signal sequence (italics), N-linked glycosylation sites (underlined), a C-terminal transmembrane anchor (bold), and an RXR ER retrieval motif (red). The results shown in A and B are representative of two or more independent experiments.</p
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