Kastediskriminering, jordeiendomsforvaltning og naturressursbruk i Nepal

The dissertation investigates the issues related to land tenancy transactions, land productivity and land related investment with a due focus on caste discrimination in the Nepalese rural society. This study also explores the potential interlinkages between land and livestock rental markets in rural Nepal. This dissertation comprises of an introduction and four independent papers. All the papers were based on the data collected in 2003 from the Western region of Nepal. Paper I assesses the caste-related land productivity differential in rural Nepal and its possible explanations. The analysis showed that low-caste households have higher land productivity as compared to high-caste households both on owner operated plots and rented in plots. The major reason behind this can be the concentration of their labor in small farms as they have lower access to regular off-farm income due to caste discrimination, low education/skills, lack of family networks and stronger subsistence constraints. Paper II examines jointly the existence of Marshallian inefficiency in sharecropping, allocative inefficiency of land tenancy transactions and an inverse farm size-productivity relationship and how these phenomena are associated with caste discrimination in Nepal. The analysis revealed that inefficiency of land tenancy transactions and caste discrimination are the major causes of inverse relationship. Paper III examined the factors that drive livestock rental market participation of the farm households in rural Nepal. Results show that differences in resource endowments and in the access to factor markets between low-caste and high-caste households as the important reasons for the emergence of the livestock rental market. Paper IV assesses if the investment and intensity of production differ between high-caste and low-caste households. This paper relates caste issue with poverty as low-caste households are poor both in terms of income and land asset. The paper analyzes the differences in short-term investments in terms of fertilizer use and manure use as well as more long-term investments in terms of terrace maintenance expenditure and intensity of cropping. Results show that there are differences in the likelihood to use manure and amount of fertilizer used between highcaste and low-caste households. Access to off-farm employment is found to have significant negative effect on land conservation investment

Framework Guidlines and Governance for Designing Local Adaptation Plan of Action to Mainstream Climate Smart Villages in India

Based on the extensive review of existing frameworks and practices on climate change adaptation and authors experiences in Indian context, this study presented BRIFFS (bottom-up, responsive, inclusive, flexible, forward-looking, and sustainable) as the major guidelines for developing LAPA. This study presented the major steps of LAPA with clear actions, activities and also tools that can be used in each step. The nine steps of LAPA are as follows: 1) Communicating climate change risks and adaptation measures at local level, 2) Assessment of climate risks and vulnerabilities and scoping of adaptation actions, 3) Prioritisation of adaptation options, 4) Formulation of LAPA, 5) LAPA integration in planning process, 6) Institutional arrangement to implement LAPA, 7) Implementation of LAPA, 8) Progress assessment of LAPA, and 9) Feedback and revision of LAPA

Contribution of agriculture to climate change and low-emission egriculture development in Asia and the Pacific

The agriculture sector in Asia and the Pacific region contributes massively to climate change, as the region has the largest share of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture. The region is the largest producer of rice, a major source of methane emissions. Further, to achieve food security for the increasing population, there has been a massive increase in the use of synthetic fertilizer and energy in agricultural production in the region over the last few decades. This has led to an enormous rise in nitrous oxide (N2O; mostly from fertilizer-N use) and carbon dioxide (mostly from energy use for irrigation) emissions from agriculture. Besides this, a substantial increase in livestock production for meat and dairy products has increased methane emissions, along with other environmental problems. In this context, this study conducts a systematic review of strategies that can reduce emissions from the agriculture sector using a multidimensional approach, looking at supply-side, demand-side, and cross-cutting measures. The review found that though there are huge potentials to reduce GHG emissions from agriculture, significant challenges exist in monitoring and verification of GHG emissions from supply-side measures, shifting to sustainable consumption behavior with regard to food consumption and use, and the design and implementation of regulatory and incentive mechanisms. On the supply side, policies should focus on the upscaling of climate-smart agriculture primarily through expanding knowledge and improving input use efficiency in agriculture, while on the demand side, there is a need to launch a drive to reduce food loss and waste and also to move towards sustainable consumption. Therefore, appropriate integration of policies at multiple levels, as well as application of multiple measures simultaneously, can increase mitigation potential as desired by the Paris Agreement and also help to achieve several of the United Nations’ SDGs

Impacts of laser land leveling in rice–wheat systems of the north–western indo-gangetic plains of India

We assessed the impact of laser land leveling technology in rice-wheat (RW) systems of north-west India using data collected from household surveys in 2011. We compared crop yield and total irrigation time required per season between laser leveled (LLL) and traditionally leveled (TLL) fields. Laser leveling in rice fields reduced irrigation time by 47–69 h/ha/season and improved yield by approximately 7 % compared with traditionally leveled fields. In wheat, irrigation time was reduced by 10–12 h/ha/season and yield increased by 7–9 % in laser leveled fields. Our analysis showed that laser land leveling is a scale neutral technology, not biased towards large farmers. Farmers benefited by an additional USD 143.5/ha/year through increased yields in RW systems and reduced electricity used in laser leveled fields compared to traditionally leveled fields when estimated by using the electricity tariff equivalent to the average subsidized tariff for agricultural use. This benefit became much larger when estimated by using an electricity tariff equivalent to the average cost of its supply. Hence, assuming an average electricity tariff equivalent to the average cost of its supply in the year 2010–11 in the country, the net benefit of shifting from TLL to LLL in RW systems in the study area was USD 194 per ha per year. This large difference in benefits indicates the loss due to market distortions by subsidy in electricity and hence, is a matter of policy concern requiring further scrutiny. The RW system in a hectare of laser leveled field required 754 kWh less electricity for irrigation per year compared to a traditionally leveled field. Furthermore, if 50 % of the area under the RW system in Haryana and Punjab states were laser leveled, this would provide an additional production of 699 million kg of rice and 987 million kg of wheat, amounting to USD 385 million/year. Thus, laser leveling contributes to food security and economical use of water and energy resources

Wealth, education and cooking-fuel choices among rural households in Pakistan

Clean and modern fuel for cooking is essential for safeguarding good health for women and children and enhancing the well-being of people in the least developed countries. A large section of the rural population in the least developed countries still use fuelwood, and dung cake and residue for cooking, which is harmful to the environment and human health. This paper uses the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey (PSLSMS), 2014-15 to investigate the cooking-fuel use patterns and factors influencing rural household choices. The results show that a significant number of rural households use fuelwood, dung and crop residue for cooking and a tiny fraction of households use natural gas. Low-income families with a lower level of schooling of household head are likely to depend on fuelwood, and dung cake and crop residues. Multinomial logit results show that household heads with higher human capital and physical and financial assets are more likely to use modern fuel such as natural gas, and are less likely to use fuelwood and, dung cake and crop residues. Empirical findings also indicate that education is the main driver of clean fuel adoption for cooking in rural Pakistan. Hence the energy policy should focus on the investment in human capital to enhance the adoption of clean fuel for cooking. Keywords: Cooking fuels, Rural, Natural gas, Education, Wealth, Pakistan, JEL classification: Q40, R2

Potential impact of scaling adaptation strategies for drought stress: a case of drought-tolerant maize varieties in Tanzania

Drought-tolerant maize varieties (DTMVs) offer hope as an adaptation strategy for farmers facing increasing frequency of droughts in sub-Saharan Africa. Adoption of these varieties also offers hope to enhance sustainability in the agricultural production system. However, these varieties are not yet widely cultivated, and the potential economic benefits not fully understood. This study examines the scalability of DTMVs in Tanzania under three scenarios: (1) scalability conditional on knowledge of DTMVs; (ii) scalability conditional on (physical) seed availability in addition to awareness; and (iii) scalability conditional on seed affordability in addition to awareness and (physical) seed availability. The study uses household production and consumption data from major regions in Tanzania. The results from the economic surplus model indicate that by 2032, the adoption of DTMVs could generate between US$373 million and US$ 499 million in cumulative benefits for both producers and consumers. Such benefits could potentially lift up to 1.6 million people out of poverty by 2032. It is estimated that consumers would get 40% of the benefits and producers 60%, with the largest benefits occurring in the major maize-producing regions of Mbeya, Rukwa, Ruvuma, Mwanza, Arusha, and Kagera. Consumers in Dar es Salaam would also benefit significantly from the price reductions resulting from increased production. The largest returns on investment would occur in Dodoma, Geita, Simiyu, Singida, and Kagera. These findings justify the investment of both public and private funds to support the scaling of DTMVs in Tanzania

Economic benefits of climate-smart agricultural practices to smallholder farmers in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India

Small landholders can implement a range of climatesmart agricultural (CSA) practices and technologies, in order to minimize the adverse effects of climate change and variability, but their adoption largely depends on economic benefits associated with the practices. To demonstrate the potential economic benefits of CSA practices, we conducted a study with smallholder farmers in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of India. Among the CSA practices and technologies including use of improved crop varieties, laser land levelling, zero tillage, residue management, site specific nutrient management, and crop diversification, a majority of the farmers prefer to use improved crop varieties, crop diversification, laser land levelling and zero tillage practice. We estimated the cost of adoption, change in yields and income for the implementation of three major CSA practices in rice- wheat system. The average cost of adoption were +1,402, +3,037 and -1,577 INR ha-1 for the use of improved crop varieties, laser land levelling and zero tillage respectively. Results show that farmers can increase net return of INR 15,712 ha-1 yr-1 with improved crop varieties, INR 8,119 ha-1 yr-1 with laser levelling and INR 6,951 ha-1 yr-1 with zero tillage in rice-wheat system. Results also show that the combination of improved seeds with zero tillage and laser land levelling technologies can further improve crop yields as well as net returns. The econometric analysis indicates that implementations of CSA practices and technologies in smallholder farms in the IGP of India, have significant impacts on change in total production costs and yield in rice-wheat system

Understanding Households' Choice of Cooking Fuels: Evidence from Urban Households in Pakistan

Households in developing countries predominantly rely on solid fuel for cooking, which is injurious to both the environment and human health. The provision of clean energy for cooking, therefore, is essential for safeguarding the environment and human health, primarily of women and children in developing countries. Using the 2014–2015 Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey and robust econometric methods, this study analyzes different types of energy used for cooking among urban households in Pakistan. The study shows that although urban households in Pakistan mostly use gas for cooking, the use of solid fuels, particularly among poor and relatively less educated households, is pervasive. The econometric findings confirm that households with a higher level of education and wealthy families mainly use clean energy, such as gas, and are less likely to use dirty solid fuels, such as cake dung and crop residue for cooking. Considering the expansion of middle-class households and anticipating their demand for clean fuel for cooking, this study suggests ensuring an adequate supply of clean sources of energy to meet future demand as well as augmenting the affordability and awareness among households who are still dependent on solid fuels

On-farm economic and environmental impact of zero-tillage wheat: a case of north-west India

Conducting farmers participatory field trials at 40 sites for 3 consecutive years in four rice-wheat system dominated districts of Haryana state of India, this paper tested the hypothesis that zero tillage (ZT) based crop production emits less greenhouse gases and yet provide adequate economic benefits to farmers compared to the conventional tillage (CT). In each farmer's field, ZT and CT based wheat production were compared side by side for three consecutive years from 2009–10 to 2011–12. In assessing the mitigation potential of ZT, we examined the differences in input use and crop management, especially those contributing to GHGs emissions, between ZT wheat and CT wheat. We employed Cool Farm Tool (CFT) to estimate emission of GHGs from various wheat production activities. In order to assess economic benefits, we examined the difference in input costs, net returns and cost-benefit analysis of wheat production under CT and ZT. Results show that farmers can save approximately USD 79 ha−1 in terms of total production costs and increase net revenue of about USD 97.5 ha−1 under ZT compared to CT. Similarly, benefit-cost ratio under ZT is 1.43 against 1.31 under CT. Our estimate shows that shifting from CT to ZT based wheat production reduces GHG emission by 1.5 Mg CO2-eq ha−1 season−1. Overall, ZT has both climate change mitigation and economic benefits, implying the win-win outcome of better agricultural practices

Agricultural sustainability under emerging climatic variability: the role of climate-smart agriculture and relevant policies in India

Global demand for agricultural products continues to grow while production resources are diminishing. Increasing climatic variability poses further challenges. Therefore, ensuring agricultural sustainability necessitates a transformation of the production system to make it more productive, inputefficient and to lower the environmental footprint. Such a transformation requires system-wide actions and considerable changes in governance, policies, and institutions. On this pretext, we examined if existing climate-smart agriculture (CSA) can enhance adaptation to and mitigation of climate change and overall food security in India. We found that CSA can substantially contribute towards climate change adaptation, mitigation, and food security. Mainstreaming CSA practices into development planning through CSVs would create mutual benefits by generating evidences based on CSAs at local level, thereby contributing to the design of local adaptation plans of action (LAPA) and further feed information into state and national action plans on climate change. Thus, we propose to mainstream CSA into development planning