Bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i et norsk nasjonalparkområde : en undersøkelse av sosiale aspekter

Vast areas have been subject to an active nature protection policy in Norway over the past decades. Sixteen per cent of the land mass on the mainland is now protected in one way or another, and national parks take up the greatest share of the protected land. In many regions throughout the world, national parks offer excellent opportunities for outdoor recreation and tourism activities. The social values of contact with nature and opportunities for nature-based activities are considered to be a key element of Norwegian /North European culture and tradition. Nature-based tourism is a rapidly growing sector of the tourism industry in many parts of the world. National parks have played a major part in this growth in many countries, because they tend to be associated with relatively pristine nature and beautiful scenery and they attract visitors seeking nature-based experiences. This PhD project explores the social dimension of sustainable tourism development in Norwegian national parks. The study reflects the paradigmatic shift in national park management policy, where the traditional view of protecting nature from human use is gradually being replaced by a vision of safeguarding both nature conservation and recreation/tourism interests. The increasing emphasis on the interests of visitors and local communities related to tourism activities suggests that social values are moving to the forefront of discourses on sustainable tourism development in national parks. The political backdrop for this new integrated management philosophy is rooted in the assumption that nature-based tourism in and around Norwegian national parks (which are typically located in remote mountain regions), represents promising opportunities for rural areas that are affected by the marginalisation of traditional industries, such as agriculture and forestry. Increasing visitation and more nature-based tourism products can potentially generate local jobs and income, and tourism therefore represents a way of stemming the outmigration of the resident populations. The integration of broader social interests in the emerging management regime has also arisen from criticisms of the traditional, expertdriven, segregated and top-down national park management strategies. The inclusion of local, experience-based knowledge, the involvement of community stakeholder interests and the anchoring of management processes and solutions at the local level are now being given political attention. In examining the social preconditions for sustainable tourism development in national parks, this PhD project analyses tourism interests in various ways: Visitor desires and concerns and the viewpoints of local tourism entrepreneurs are taken into consideration, as well as the views of other rural interests with a stake in the utilisation of national parks. Nasjonalparkriket (“The National Park Realm”) was chosen as the case study area for the empirical study. This mountainous region is situated in the northern part of Oppland County in Norway. It comprises six municipalities with very high land coverage of protected areas, including six national parks. Visitors’ Nature Orientations were examined through two surveys to achieve a detailed understanding of their main types of nature appreciation. The findings illustrate tourists’ nature-related motives, values and attitudes and also their behavioural preferences in a nature setting. German, Dutch and Danish motor tourists visiting Norway were surveyed when leaving the country by ferry and four vital dimensions of Nature Orientations were identified: Inspiration, Recreation, Challenge and Sightseeing. Inspiration represents existential values and a strong emotional connectedness with landscape and nature; Recreation signifies the desire for tranquillity, peacefulness and physical relaxation in natural surroundings; Challenge represents the desire for demanding physical exercise and risk taking, and Sightseeing refers to interests in seeing sights and the appreciation of comfort aspects. An additional visitor survey among actual visitors in Nasjonalparkriket, supported these findings but the Sightseeing dimension was re-labelled Comfort due to the relative importance of the comfort aspect in the fourth dimension. Tourism facilities (and visitors’ ‘quests’ for such facilities) in and around national parks can potentially match the different Nature Orientations, and the border survey showed that each of the four identified principal Quest for Facilities dimensions related to distinct nature interests: The Nature Orientations Challenge and Sightseeing supported the expressed wishes for extension and upgrading of “Tracks & signposts” within national parks. The desire for more grand scale “Infrastructure & services” was upheld by Nature Orientations Challenge and Sightseeing but was contested by Recreation. Moreover, “Food & accommodation” products mainly located outside parks were found to be particularly appealing to the Nature Orientation Sightseeing. The expansion of “Tours & interpretation” services and facilities in natural surroundings was supported by the Inspiration or Sightseeing orientations. Tourists who seek pleasures in natural surroundings tend to express great concern for the environment. In the survey among actual visitors in Nasjonalparkriket, respondents generally expressed a very low degree of acceptance for negative ecological impacts resulting from tourism activities and installations in the national parks. The Nature Orientation dimension Inspiration was associated with a particularly great concern for the wild reindeer habitat, raptor nesting and attrition on vegetation. On the other hand, both Comfort (Sightseeing) and Challenge orientations showed less environmental concern compared to visitors in general. The Quest for Facilities dimensions “Infrastructure & service” and “Food & accommodation” (i.e. tourism product interests upheld by Comfort (Sightseeing) and Challenge according to the border survey) fell into the latter domain, and were also (in relative terms) related to a higher degree of acceptance of negative ecological impacts. Tourists’ Nature Orientations, Quest for Facilities and views on potential nature destruction (as revealed in the two surveys) represent important knowledge for managers who are looking to develop national parks into viable tourism attractions. In addition, local tourism entrepreneurs need to be aware of their guests’ interests and concerns if they want to succeed. Local tourism stakeholders are often totally dependent on the natural resources contained in the protected areas. National park management policies and regulations represent opportunities and constraints for tourism activities, and thus have a direct influence on the prospects for tourism expansion. Qualitative interviews with local tourism stakeholders in Rondane and Jotunheimen national parks (within Nasjonalparkriket) revealed that, despite their general support for national parks status, they felt that the management planning processes and outcomes left a lot to be desired. First, the tourism representatives reported only minor involvement in the national park planning processes, and that they had very little input into the final planning arrangements. Second, they felt that management rules and regulations restricted opportunities for tourism related business operations within the parks. Third, respondents perceived a lack of competence among managers concerning business management and tourism development issues. In Rondane National Park, doubts were expressed about the necessity of the measures implemented to protect the wild reindeer, and the scientific evidence supporting these measures. In Jotunheimen National Park, respondents thought that sustainable tourism development should be more explicitly included in management visions and goals for the national park, and they called for a visitor strategy to be implemented. They also expressed a desire to be involved in the co-management of the park. Considerable investment in communication and relationship-building is likely to be required in these two parks to foster durable social links and trustworthy planning partnerships between responsible managers and local tourism stakeholders. Similar opinions were identified among local tourism stakeholders in a focus group study in the two national parks mentioned above. The traditional rural users (i.e. local landowners, farmers, etc.) of the national parks are social interests defining the freedom of action with respect to existing tourism activities and also new tourism industry initiatives. When exploring the opinions of both groups (i.e. local tourism entrepreneurs and traditional rural users) about tourism in the protected areas, there were few direct clashes of interest. However, contradictory views were evident amongst groups when discussing the need for genuine tourism growth in the area. The local tourism entrepreneurs demonstrated an ‘openness to change’ in order to sustain their businesses and the local community, whereas the traditional rural user interests had a more sceptical attitude and were afraid that new developments could change the character of their countryside and undermine rural lifestyles and the integrity of their local community. Viable directions for tourism development should therefore be negotiated between the two stakeholder interests. The main contribution of this dissertation is to highlight social preconditions for sustainable tourism development in a Norwegian national park setting. Both ‘outsider’ and ‘insider’ social perspectives (i.e. visitor and local stakeholder interests), are equally taken into consideration. Existing opportunities and constraints are discussed and issues of crucial importance for tourism advancement in the national parks are identified.Store naturområder er blitt vernet av norske myndigheter i de siste tiårene. 16 prosent av landarealene på Norges fastland er nå vernet i en eller annen form, og nasjonalparkene utgjør den største andelen av disse verneområdene. I mange land er nasjonalparkene svært godt tilrettelagte for rekreasjons- og turistaktiviteter. De sosiale verdiene som er knyttet til befolkningens nærhet til natur og mulighetene for naturbaserte aktiviteter og opplevelser blir ofte ansett som et kjerneelement i norsk/skandinavisk kultur og tradisjon. Naturbasert turisme er en raskt voksende sektor i mange deler av verden, og nasjonalparkene blir gjerne assosiert med godt bevart, verdifull natur og vakre landskaper, som tiltrekker seg et økende antall besøkende i mange land. I dette PhD-prosjektet rettes søkelyset mot den sosiale dimensjonen ved bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i norske nasjonalparker. Studien reflekterer det pågående paradigmatiske skiftet i nasjonalparkpolitikken, der det klassiske naturvernet mot menneskelig bruk og påvirkning gradvis blir erstattet av forestillinger om at naturforvaltning i denne typen områder bør handle om å ivareta både naturhensyn og reiselivsinteresser. Den voksende oppmerksomheten omkring de besøkendes behov og den økende vektleggingen av lokalsamfunnsinteressene som er relatert til turistaktivitetene indikerer at de sosiale aspektene gradvis får større betydning i diskusjoner om bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i nasjonalparkene. Det generelle politiske bakteppet for denne nyere, sosialt integrerte forvaltningsfilosofien er knyttet til en antakelse om at norske nasjonalparker, som gjerne er lokalisert i relativt perifere fjellregioner, representerer næringsmuligheter for bygdesamfunn som er blitt marginalisert i økonomisk henseende som følge av tilbakegang i tradisjonelle næringer som jordbruk og skogbruk. Mer besøk i nasjonalparkene og tilpassede naturbaserte reiselivstilbud kan potensielt skape arbeidsplasser lokalt og tilføre lokalsamfunnene nye inntekter. Utvikling av reiselivet fremstår derfor som et egnet redskap for å motvirke utflytting fra disse områdene. Innlemmingen av bredere sosiale interesser i det nye forvaltningsregimet kan også ses på som et svar på kritikken av den dominerende naturvitenskapelige, ekspertpregede og top-downorienterte forvaltningstradisjonen. Inkludering av både lokal og erfaringsbasert kunnskap, involvering av lokalsamfunnsinteresser og sikring av lokalt forankrede forvaltningsprosesser og -beslutninger blir nå i stadig større grad viet politisk oppmerksomhet. I denne studien av sosiale aspekter ved bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i nasjonalparker rettes søkelyset både mot de besøkendes tilretteleggingsønsker og mot deres omtanke for naturmiljøet. I tillegg analyseres synspunktene på reiselivsutvikling i nasjonalparkene blant lokale reiselivsentreprenører og andre lokale brukerinteresser. Nasjonalparkriket i Nord-Gudbrandsdalen ble valgt som case for den empiriske undersøkelsen. Denne fjellregionen ligger i den nordlige delen av Oppland fylke, og omfatter seks kommuner med seks nasjonalparker, der en svært stor andel av arealet består av vernede landområder. Gjennom to surveyundersøkelser ble turistenes såkalte naturorienteringer belyst. Resultatene illustrerer turistenes naturrelaterte motiver, verdier og holdninger samt deres atferdspreferanser i et naturmiljø. Tyske, nederlandske og danske bilturister ble i den første surveyundersøkelsen bedt om å besvare et spørreskjema ved utreise fra Norge med ferge, og fire typer av naturorienteringer ble identifisert i denne grenseundersøkelsen: Inspirasjon, Rekreasjon, Utfordring og Sightseeing. Inspirasjon representerer eksistensielle verdier og en sterk emosjonell tilknytning til natur og landskaper. Rekreasjon står for ønsker om stillhet, ro og fysisk avkobling i naturomgivelser. Utfordring gjenspeiler ønsker om fysisk krevende aktiviteter og en viss risikoorientering. Sightseeing reflekterer interessen for å se attraksjoner og understreker betydningen av komfort på reisen. Den andre surveyundersøkelsen, en spørreundersøkelse blant faktisk besøkende i Nasjonalparkriket, bekreftet disse funnene, men her ble Sightseeing omskrevet til Komfort pga den sterke betydningen av komfortaspektene på den fjerde dimensjonen. De besøkendes uttrykte ønsker om tilrettelegginger av fasiliteter i og rundt nasjonalparkene kan i utgangspunktet tenkes å være knyttet til de ulike naturorienteringene. Grenseundersøkelsen blant de utenlandske bilturistene viste at hver av de fire identifiserte typene av fasilitetsønsker var relatert til hver av de fire typene av naturinteresser: Naturorienteringene Utfordring og Sightseeing understøttet ønskene om å utvide og oppgradere ”Stier & skilter” inne i nasjonalparkene. Ønskene om mer storskala ”Infrastruktur & service” ble opprettholdt av naturorienteringene Utfordring og Sightseeing, men var i liten grad relatert til Rekreasjon. Tilrettelagte turistprodukter innen ”Mat & overnatting” utenfor nasjonalparkenes grenser hadde først og fremst appell til naturorienteringen Sightseeing, mens ”Organiserte turer & formidling” i naturomgivelser var relatert til naturorienteringene Inspirasjon og Sightseeing. Turister som søker seg til naturområder er gjerne opptatt av vern av naturmiljøet. I undersøkelsen blant besøkende i Nasjonalparkriket uttrykte respondentene generelt sett lav grad av aksept for negative økologiske konsekvenser som følge av turistaktiviteter og turistmessig infrastruktur i nasjonalparkene. Naturorienteringsdimensjonen Inspirasjon var forbundet med en spesielt restriktiv holdning til negativ påvirkning av villreinhabitatet, rovfuglenes redebygging og slitasje på vegetasjonen. På den andre siden viste både orienteringene knyttet til Komfort (Sightseeing) og Utfordring større grad av aksept for negative økologiske virkninger. De som ønsket ”Infrastruktur og service” og ”Mat & overnatting” (dvs. fasilitetsønsker opprettholdt av Komfort /Sightseeing og Utfordring i følge grenseundersøkelsen) falt inn i den siste kategorien, der det var en relativt sett høy grad av aksept for negative økologiske virkninger. Turisters naturorienteringer, fasilitetsønsker og oppfatninger av potensielle naturødeleggelser, slik det ble avdekket i de to surveyundersøkelsene, er viktig kunnskap for forvaltningsmyndigheter som ønsker å utvikle nasjonalparkene til bærekraftige turismeattraksjoner. I tillegg må lokale reiselivsentreprenører ha kjennskap til gjestenes interesser og innsikt i deres miljøengasjement dersom de skal kunne overleve. De lokale næringsaktørene er dessuten helt avhengige av naturressursene som finnes inne i nasjonalparkene. Forvaltningspolitikk og -reguleringer representerer muligheter og begrensninger for turismeaktiviteter og har dermed direkte betydning for utviklingen av reiselivet i nasjonalparkene. Kvalitative intervjuer med lokale reiselivsaktører i Rondane og Jotunheimen nasjonalparker (som begge er lokalisert innenfor Nasjonalparkriket) viste at disse entreprenørene så fundamentale mangler ved både forvaltningsplanprosesser og - bestemmelser, til tross for at de generelt støttet nasjonalparkstatusen for disse fjellområdene: For det første rapporterte aktørene om bare minimal, reell involvering i nasjonalparkenes forvaltningsplanprosesser, og de uttrykte at de hadde hatt liten innflytelse på de endelige vedtakene som ble fattet. For det andre opplevde de at reguleringene begrenset mulighetene for turistaktiviteter inne i nasjonalparkene. For det tredje pekte de på at forvaltningen mangler kompetanse både på forretningsvirksomhet og reiselivsutvikling. I Rondane ble det uttrykt tvil om nødvendigheten av de strenge tiltakene for å beskytte villreinen og det vitenskapelige grunnlaget for disse initiativene. I Jotunheimen mente de lokale reiselivsaktørene at bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling burde bli eksplisitt inkludert i forvaltningens visjoner og målsettinger for nasjonalparken, og de ønsket iverksetting av en besøksstrategi for dette verneområdet. De ville også gjerne bli delaktige i forvaltningen av parken. Betydelige investeringer i kommunikasjon og relasjonsbygging er trolig påkrevd i disse to parkene for å utvikle tillitsfulle og varige sosiale bånd mellom forvaltningsmyndighetene og de lokale reiselivsaktørene. Liknende synspunkter ble identifisert blant lokale reiselivsentreprenører i en fokusgruppeundersøkelse i de to nevnte nasjonalparkene. De tradisjonelle bruksinteressene (dvs. lokale grunneiere, bønder etc.) i nasjonalparkene er sosiale interesser som kan tenkes å sette rammer for reiselivsaktivitetene og dermed også påvirke nye initiativ i reiselivsnæringen. Analysene av alle fokusgruppene (dvs. både blant de lokale reiselivsaktørene og de tradisjonelle brukerinteressene i de to parkene) viste at det var få eksisterende konflikter mellom de ulike interessene. Men ulike synspunkter kom til uttrykk når behovet for fortsatt vekst i turismen i området ble diskutert. De lokale reiselivsaktørene viste en ”åpenhet for forandring” for å videreutvikle reiselivet og livskraften i lokalsamfunnet, mens de tradisjonelle brukerinteressene hadde en mer skeptisk holdning og var engstelige for at rask reiselivsvekst kunne endre områdets karakter og underminere lokal livsstil og bygdesamfunnets integritet. Bærekraftige løsninger for videre reiselivsutvikling i området bør derfor framforhandles mellom disse ulike lokale brukerinteressene. Det viktigste bidraget i dette PhD-prosjektet har vært å analysere de sosiale forutsetningene for bærekraftig reiselivsutvikling i norske nasjonalparker. De sosiale aspektene er belyst gjennom både ”utenfra”- og ”innenfra”-perspektiver, dvs. at interessene til så vel besøkende turister som lokale næringsutøvere er inkludert i denne avhandlingen.Norges Bondelag ; Nasjonalparkrike

Sustainable tourism development in a Norwegian national park area : exploring social aspects

Vast areas have been subject to an active nature protection policy in Norway over the past decades. Sixteen per cent of the land mass on the mainland is now protected in one way or another, and national parks take up the greatest share of the protected land. In many regions throughout the world, national parks offer excellent opportunities for outdoor recreation and tourism activities. The social values of contact with nature and opportunities for nature-based activities are considered to be a key element of Norwegian /North European culture and tradition. Nature-based tourism is a rapidly growing sector of the tourism industry in many parts of the world. National parks have played a major part in this growth in many countries, because they tend to be associated with relatively pristine nature and beautiful scenery and they attract visitors seeking nature-based experiences. This PhD project explores the social dimension of sustainable tourism development in Norwegian national parks. The study reflects the paradigmatic shift in national park management policy, where the traditional view of protecting nature from human use is gradually being replaced by a vision of safeguarding both nature conservation and recreation/tourism interests. The increasing emphasis on the interests of visitors and local communities related to tourism activities suggests that social values are moving to the forefront of discourses on sustainable tourism development in national parks. The political backdrop for this new integrated management philosophy is rooted in the assumption that nature-based tourism in and around Norwegian national parks (which are typically located in remote mountain regions), represents promising opportunities for rural areas that are affected by the marginalisation of traditional industries, such as agriculture and forestry. Increasing visitation and more nature-based tourism products can potentially generate local jobs and income, and tourism therefore represents a way of stemming the outmigration of the resident populations. The integration of broader social interests in the emerging management regime has also arisen from criticisms of the traditional, expertdriven, segregated and top-down national park management strategies. The inclusion of local, experience-based knowledge, the involvement of community stakeholder interests and the anchoring of management processes and solutions at the local level are now being given political attention. In examining the social preconditions for sustainable tourism development in national parks, this PhD project analyses tourism interests in various ways: Visitor desires and concerns and the viewpoints of local tourism entrepreneurs are taken into consideration, as well as the views of other rural interests with a stake in the utilisation of national parks. Nasjonalparkriket (“The National Park Realm”) was chosen as the case study area for the empirical study. This mountainous region is situated in the northern part of Oppland County in Norway. It comprises six municipalities with very high land coverage of protected areas, including six national parks. Visitors’ Nature Orientations were examined through two surveys to achieve a detailed understanding of their main types of nature appreciation. The findings illustrate tourists’ nature-related motives, values and attitudes and also their behavioural preferences in a nature setting. German, Dutch and Danish motor tourists visiting Norway were surveyed when leaving the country by ferry and four vital dimensions of Nature Orientations were identified: Inspiration, Recreation, Challenge and Sightseeing. Inspiration represents existential values and a strong emotional connectedness with landscape and nature; Recreation signifies the desire for tranquillity, peacefulness and physical relaxation in natural surroundings; Challenge represents the desire for demanding physical exercise and risk taking, and Sightseeing refers to interests in seeing sights and the appreciation of comfort aspects. An additional visitor survey among actual visitors in Nasjonalparkriket, supported these findings but the Sightseeing dimension was re-labelled Comfort due to the relative importance of the comfort aspect in the fourth dimension. Tourism facilities (and visitors’ ‘quests’ for such facilities) in and around national parks can potentially match the different Nature Orientations, and the border survey showed that each of the four identified principal Quest for Facilities dimensions related to distinct nature interests: The Nature Orientations Challenge and Sightseeing supported the expressed wishes for extension and upgrading of “Tracks & signposts” within national parks. The desire for more grand scale “Infrastructure & services” was upheld by Nature Orientations Challenge and Sightseeing but was contested by Recreation. Moreover, “Food & accommodation” products mainly located outside parks were found to be particularly appealing to the Nature Orientation Sightseeing. The expansion of “Tours & interpretation” services and facilities in natural surroundings was supported by the Inspiration or Sightseeing orientations. Tourists who seek pleasures in natural surroundings tend to express great concern for the environment. In the survey among actual visitors in Nasjonalparkriket, respondents generally expressed a very low degree of acceptance for negative ecological impacts resulting from tourism activities and installations in the national parks. The Nature Orientation dimension Inspiration was associated with a particularly great concern for the wild reindeer habitat, raptor nesting and attrition on vegetation. On the other hand, both Comfort (Sightseeing) and Challenge orientations showed less environmental concern compared to visitors in general. The Quest for Facilities dimensions “Infrastructure & service” and “Food & accommodation” (i.e. tourism product interests upheld by Comfort (Sightseeing) and Challenge according to the border survey) fell into the latter domain, and were also (in relative terms) related to a higher degree of acceptance of negative ecological impacts. Tourists’ Nature Orientations, Quest for Facilities and views on potential nature destruction (as revealed in the two surveys) represent important knowledge for managers who are looking to develop national parks into viable tourism attractions. In addition, local tourism entrepreneurs need to be aware of their guests’ interests and concerns if they want to succeed. Local tourism stakeholders are often totally dependent on the natural resources contained in the protected areas. National park management policies and regulations represent opportunities and constraints for tourism activities, and thus have a direct influence on the prospects for tourism expansion. Qualitative interviews with local tourism stakeholders in Rondane and Jotunheimen national parks (within Nasjonalparkriket) revealed that, despite their general support for national parks status, they felt that the management planning processes and outcomes left a lot to be desired. First, the tourism representatives reported only minor involvement in the national park planning processes, and that they had very little input into the final planning arrangements. Second, they felt that management rules and regulations restricted opportunities for tourism related business operations within the parks. Third, respondents perceived a lack of competence among managers concerning business management and tourism development issues. In Rondane National Park, doubts were expressed about the necessity of the measures implemented to protect the wild reindeer, and the scientific evidence supporting these measures. In Jotunheimen National Park, respondents thought that sustainable tourism development should be more explicitly included in management visions and goals for the national park, and they called for a visitor strategy to be implemented. They also expressed a desire to be involved in the co-management of the park. Considerable investment in communication and relationship-building is likely to be required in these two parks to foster durable social links and trustworthy planning partnerships between responsible managers and local tourism stakeholders. Similar opinions were identified among local tourism stakeholders in a focus group study in the two national parks mentioned above. The traditional rural users (i.e. local landowners, farmers, etc.) of the national parks are social interests defining the freedom of action with respect to existing tourism activities and also new tourism industry initiatives. When exploring the opinions of both groups (i.e. local tourism entrepreneurs and traditional rural users) about tourism in the protected areas, there were few direct clashes of interest. However, contradictory views were evident amongst groups when discussing the need for genuine tourism growth in the area. The local tourism entrepreneurs demonstrated an ‘openness to change’ in order to sustain their businesses and the local community, whereas the traditional rural user interests had a more sceptical attitude and were afraid that new developments could change the character of their countryside and undermine rural lifestyles and the integrity of their local community. Viable directions for tourism development should therefore be negotiated between the two stakeholder interests. The main contribution of this dissertation is to highlight social preconditions for sustainable tourism development in a Norwegian national park setting. Both ‘outsider’ and ‘insider’ social perspectives (i.e. visitor and local stakeholder interests), are equally taken into consideration. Existing opportunities and constraints are discussed and issues of crucial importance for tourism advancement in the national parks are identified

Do visitors gaze and reproduce what destination managers wish to commercialise? Perceived and projected image in the UNESCO World Heritage area ‘West Norwegian Fjords’

Destination image plays a key role in helping people decide where to travel and affects satisfaction, likelihood of return visits and word of mouth. While photography is not the only way of projecting and perceiving an image, ‘a picture paints a thousand words’. The rise of social media and usergenerated content has made the image formation process more complex, and has reduced the extent of control that tourism suppliers can exert on the image they wish to project. It is thus necessary to further investigate whether tourists reproduce the commercialised image in what the literature calls the ‘hermeneutic circle of representation’ or capture and share their own impressions. This study constructs a categorisation scheme for conducting photography-based image analysis to compare images of two Norwegian destinations as projected by destination management organisations with those shared by Instagram users (perceived image). Results indicate that this circle of representation is not hermeneutic.submittedVersio

Hvordan kan utvikling av delingsøkonomi skape muligheter for mer bærekraftig deling av utstyr, ressurser og tjenester i friluftsliv og naturbasert reiseliv i Innlandet?

Innlandet er et fylke med mange spredtbygde og rurale områder med mye utmark, og hvor friluftsliv og naturbasert turisme er utbredt. Denne artikkelen presenterer resultatene fra et nettbasert arbeidsverksted gjennomført i 2020, om mulige fremtidsscenarioer, konsekvenser og tiltak for utvikling av delingstjenester innenfor reiseliv og kreative næringer knyttet til naturopplevelser i Innlandet de neste 10 årene. I tillegg presenteres funnene fra en etterfølgende nettbasert, forenklet Delphi-undersøkelse i det samme fylket blant personer med innsikt i denne tematikken. Blant verkstedsdeltagerne var det generelt tro på at de foreslåtte scenarioene om klima-, sikkerhets- og teknologiutvikling relatert til delingsøkonomi sannsynligvis vil inntreffe de neste 10 årene. Alt i alt vurderte man utvikling av delingsøkonomi som positivt for de fleste interessentgrupper og aktører, og for klima og miljø. Dette handlet særlig om å styrke digital kompetanse med tanke på å etablere nye delingsplattformer, å stimulere samarbeid mellom teknologibedrifter og andre bedrifter som kan tilby delingstjenester innen reiseliv og kreative næringer, og å bidra til utprøving (pilotering) av nye delingsløsninger. Delphi-undersøkelsen bekreftet i stor grad funnene fra verkstedet med hensyn til vurdering av fremtidsscenarioene, mulige konsekvenser og prioritering av tiltak. Det er likevel en tendens til at Delphi-deltagerne fra andre sektorer enn de fra reiseliv og kreative næringer er mer positivt innstilt til utvikling av delingsøkonomi i Innlandet. De foreslåtte tiltakene forventes i høy grad å bidra til å styrke både bedrifters, lokalsamfunns og naturmiljøets bærekraft.Innlandet is a county in Norway with many sparsely populated and rural areas with much non-cultivated land, and where outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism are widespread. This article presents the results from an online workshop conducted in 2020, on possible future scenarios, their consequences, and measures for the development of sharing services in tourism and creative industries within nature-based tourism in Innlandet over the next 10 years. In addition, we present findings from a subsequent web-based, simplified Delphi survey among people with special insights into this topic in the same county. Among the workshop participants, there was a general belief that the proposed scenarios for climate, security and technology development related to the sharing economy will likely occur within the next 10 years. All in all, the development of the sharing economy is considered positive for most stakeholder groups and actors, and for climate and environment in Innlandet. This was in particular related to strengthening digital competence with respect to establishing new sharing platforms, to stimulate cooperation between technology companies and other companies that can offer sharing services in the tourism and creative industries, and to contribute to testing (piloting) new sharing solutions. The Delphi survey largely confirmed the findings from the workshop regarding assessments of future scenarios, possible consequences and prioritisation of measures, with a high degree of concurrence between the assessments among the workshop and Delphi participants. Nevertheless, there is a tendency among the Delphi participants from other sectors to be more positively inclined, in some respects, to the development of the sharing economy in Innlandet than those from tourism and creative industries. The proposed measures are expected to greatly contribute to strengthening the sustainability of businesses, local communities, and the natural environment

Tourism megatrends : a literature review focused on nature-based tourism

This report identifies and describes the most prominent exogenous factors affecting nature-based tourism (NBT). Megatrends and associated sub-trends were identified by means of a literature review and structured using the STEEP framework, including social, technological, economic, environmental and political drivers (Dwyer et al., 2009). Research papers published in English language journals were obtained by searching electronic databases of scientific and tourism journals (Google Scholar, Web of Science, Oria). A total of 151 research papers (including 109 peer reviewed journal articles) published between the years 1998-2017 were identified. The peer reviewed research papers were published in 55 different journals spanning a wide array of disciplines. Concluding remarks put the results in the context of Norwegian nature-based toursm. Social trends • Population growth. Will lead to an overall increase in participation in nature-based tourism. However, such unprecedented growths can also lead to an overuse of natural attractions negatively affecting natural resources. • Changes in household composition. Family households are getting smaller. Sole-parent and single-person households becoming more prevalent. More income and discretionary time to travel and participate in recreational activities. • Ageing population. Healthier, wealthier and more active older persons. Growingly interested in nature-based activities which accommodate their reduced physical abilities, i.e. less strenuous activities. • Health and well-being. More emphasis on mental health; de-stressing and self-medicating. People increasingly seek out nature-based activities as a form of natural therapy/treatment. • Urbanization. Urban congestion is threatening natural environments and leading to loss of landscape. People’s need for green spaces is growing, thus, the demand for NBT is increasing as well. • Changing work patterns. A reduction in physically demanding employment and household work leads to increased demand for physical activity during leisure time. The growing middle class with more flexible working conditions and an increasing disposable time and income is allowing for more flexible travel plans and a desire to spend holidays in new and exotic natural destinations. • Gender. Modern societies are more feminized and women highly influence the choice of leisure activities. Women are prone to choosing NBT activities and products of high convenience, quality and beauty. While men value challenging NBT activities (e.g. hunting, fishing, adventure activities). • Increasing cultural diversity. Multicultural society is altering NBT visitor markets. Inflow of tourists with different cultural backgrounds, preferences and expectations, may lead to conflicts among them. New management interventions required in order to accommodate tourists’ different needs and expectations, and prevent probable conflicts. • Values and lifestyles. Today’s tourist is money rich/time poor, individualistic, seeking unique, personalized and authentic experiences. Tourists are increasingly interested in participating in NBT activities as it helps them understand themselves better, achieve a sense of transformation and identity. Moreover, there is an increasing environmental awareness among them. Technological trends • Transportation. New technology is reducing the cost and the increasing speed of travel. Increasing accessibility to various tourist destinations. Schemes to reduce carbon emissions are expected to negatively impact destinations far from markets. • High-tech equipment. Outdoor high-tech recreational equipment and clothing are providing recreationists with increased comfort, safety and access to nature destinations. Growth in participation in different types of NBT activities. • Information and communication technology (ICT). Advanced technology allows tourist destinations to add value for their visitors and minimize operating costs. Electronic word-of-mouth becomes an increasingly important factor for destination image and travel behavior. Social media allow for more transparency between customers and suppliers. More competition among tourist destinations and greater consumer power. Mobile technology and expanded mobile service covering remote areas will encourage tourists to visit and experience new, unknown nature areas. For NBT, Internet of Things is expected to help in managing visitors flow in outdoor areas, improve traffic management and enhance the monitoring of fragile ecosystems. Indoorization of outdoor activities and artificial recreations settings may signal a shift away from recreation in nature, but it is also argued that such services can stimulate participating in NBT. Economic Trends • Economic growth in developed economies. Economic growth, increasing income and disposable time in developed countries allow more people to spend more time and money on nature-based experiences. • Economic growth in emerging economies. Economic growth in emerging economies of the BRIC nations, especially China and India, will significantly contribute to the expansion of tourism. This is leading to an alteration in the cultural and ethnic mix of tourists arriving to the EU. These tourists bring different behaviour, expectations and demands, e.g. Chinese tourists are found to be more interested in passive enjoyment of natural scenery (i.e. sightseeing) rather than active involvement in NBT activities. • Sharing economy. Tourism services and businesses such as hotels, restaurants and tour operators are being challenged and gradually replaced by individuals who offer budget-friendly services such as accommodation, transportation, excursions and meals. • Fuel costs. Despite temporary reductions, oil prices are expected to increase again which will negatively impact travel propensity via increased cost for flight tickets and introduction of fuel charges. Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies are expected to restrict and hinder future travel. Environmental trends • Climate change. Have a direct impact on NBT. Winter tourism is negatively impacted in regions such as Northern Europe and North America as winter becomes warmer and wetter; lower-altitude ski resorts are expected to face economical problems due to decline in snow cover and decline in visitation levels. While, capacity pressures will be created in higher-altitude resorts. Dog sledding and snowmobiling are also expected to face negative effects due to reduced snow cover. Climate change is leading to receding glaciers, hence, diminishing not only their aesthetic value but also their economical value associated with NBT activities such as sightseeing, trekking and skiing. Climate change is also leading to coral bleaching, starfish outbreaks and environmental degradation which negatively impact dive and snorkel tourism. • Land use and landscape change. Urbanization, rural depopulation, exploitation of land for road construction and energy production have all led to different changes to landscapes and loss of their aesthetic values. Natural landscapes are a main driving force of NBT. Hence, all such changes were found to have a negative impact on NBT via for instance reducing the attractiveness of tourist landscapes and the quality of tourists’ experiences. Conflicts between various stakeholders (e.g. tourism, forestry, energy production) is also documented in the literature. Protected areas are often significant attractions in the nature-based tourism system, and more recent environmental policies in Scandinavia have emphasized the need to integrate nature-based tourism with protection of nature so that the two can be of mutual benefit. Political trends • Political turbulence, war and terrorism. Political turbulence in regions such as the Middle East, Africa and parts of Asia are predicted to diminish tourism flows overall but is predicted to enhance the attractiveness of tourist destinations perceived as ‘safe’. Tourist attractions that offer settings (e.g. outdoor recreation settings) where large numbers of visitors are gathered are more prone to terror attacks and may need more security measures to ensure safety. Loss of natural heritage due to war and civil unrest is documented in the literature; examples of damaged national parks and ruined NBT industries in countries with political turbulence and terror attacks are also documented. • Changes in border regulations. Changes in border regulations via the introduction and implementation of agreements such as the Schengen Agreement or China’s Approved Destination Status ‘ADS’ have reduced border travel restrictions, creating huge tourism opportunities and traffic in several regions worldwide. China’s ADS is expected to become the largest outbound market by 2020. • Health risks. The continuing rise in international travel is a driving force in global emergence and spread of infectious diseases (e.g. Zika or Ebola virus). Future spread of persistent life-threatening diseases may make international travel be perceived as a personal risk. Future travel may be strictly regulated to prevent the spread of any virulent diseases among tourist destinations. • Geopolitics. In today’s globalised world, tourism is being used as an instrument to realize particular geopolitical goals. For example, sport events among Commonwealth member states as a unification tool. China’s Approved Destination Status (ADS) as a projection of its soft power. Regional blocs such as North American and the European Union Free Trade Agreement also impact tourists’ movement within these multilateral entities. The report is produced with funding from BIOTOUR – a four year research project with the objective to research and disseminate key conditions for future development of nature-based tourism in the Norwegian bio-economy that contribute to business innovation, community resilience and sustainable use of resources (www.nmbu.no/biotour).Denne rapporten identifiserer og beskriver de viktigste faktorene som påvirker det naturbaserte reiselivet. Megatrender og tilhørende sub-trender er blitt klarlagt gjennom en litteraturstudie og strukturert ved hjelp av et eget rammeverk, STEEP, som omfatter sosiale (Social), teknologiske (Technological), økonomiske (Economic), miljømessige (Environmental) og politiske (Political) drivkrefter (Dwyer et al., 2009). Litteraturgjennomgangen baserer seg på systematiske søk i elektroniske databaser for vitenskapelige, engelskspråklige journaler (Google Scholar, Web of Science, Oria). I alt 151 forskningsbidrag (hvorav 109 fagfellevurderte tidsskriftsartikler) publisert i årene 1998-2017 ble identifisert, og disse er blitt publisert i 55 ulike tidsskrifter innenfor et bredt spekter av fagdisipliner. I konklusjonsdelen av rapporten er hovedresultatene satt inn i en norsk naturbasert reiselivskontekst. Sosiale trender • Befolkningsvekst. Vil føre til en generell økning i deltakelsen i naturbasert reiseliv. Men en slik akselererende vekst kan også føre til stort forbruk av naturattraksjoner, som igjen kan påvirke naturressursgrunnlaget på en negativ måte. • Endringer i husholdningenes sammensetning. Familiehusholdningene blir mindre. Hushold bestående av én forelder eller aleneboende blir mer vanlig. Høyere inntekter og mer fleksibel tidsbruk øker mulighetene for å reise og delta i rekreasjonsaktiviteter. • Aldrende befolkning. Bedre helse og høyere velstand blant aktive eldre personer. Økende interesse for naturbaserte aktiviteter som er tilpasset reduserte fysiske forutsetninger, dvs. mindre krevende aktiviteter. • Helse og velvære. Mer vekt på mental helse; avstressing og selvmedisinering. Folk velger naturbaserte aktiviteter som en form for naturlig terapi/ behandling. • Urbanisering. Urban vekst truer naturmiljøer og fører til tap av naturlandskap. Folks behov for tilgang til grønne områder øker, og dermed vokser også etterspørselen etter naturbasert reiseliv. • Endrede arbeidsmønstre. Reduksjon i fysisk jobbkrav og mindre anstrengende husarbeid fører til økt etterspørsel etter fysisk aktivitet i fritiden. Den voksende middelklassen med mindre rigide arbeidsbetingelser og mer disponibel tid og inntekt åpner for mer fleksibel reising og et ønske om å tilbringe ferien på nye destinasjoner med eksotisk natur. • Kjønn. Moderne samfunn er mer feminiserte, og kvinner påvirker i stor grad valg av fritidsaktiviteter. Kvinner er tilbøyelige til å velge naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter preget av bekvemmelighet, kvalitet og skjønnhet, mens menn i større grad søker utfordrende aktiviteter som jakt, fiske og det som representerer spenning i naturomgivelser. • Økende kulturelt mangfold. Det multikulturelle samfunnet endrer markedene i det naturbaserte reiselivet. Tilstrømmingen av turister med ulik kulturell bakgrunn, preferanser og forventninger kan føre til konflikter mellom de ulike segmentene. Nye grep fra naturforvaltningen er påkrevd for å ivareta turistenes ulike behov og forventninger, og forhindre konflikter. • Verdier og livsstiler. Dagens turist er rik på penger men fattig på tid, individualistisk, og søker unike, persontilpassede og autentiske opplevelser. Turister er i økende grad interessert i å delta i naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter; det hjelper dem til å forstå seg selv bedre, bidrar til en følelse av personlig forandring og uttrykker en form identitet. Videre er det en økende miljøbevissthet. Teknologiske trender • Transport. Ny teknologi reduserer reisekostnadene og øker reisehastighetene. Tilgjengeligheten til ulike turistdestinasjoner øker. Planer for å redusere karbonutslipp forventes å påvirke destinasjoner som ligger langt fra markedene, på en negativ måte. • High-tech-utstyr. High-tech utstyr og avanserte klær gir friluftslivsutøvere mer komfort, høyere sikkerhet og lettere tilgang til naturområder. Bidrar til vekst i ulike former for naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter. • Informasjons- og kommunikasjonsteknologi (IKT). Avansert teknologi gir turistdestinasjoner merverdi for besøkende og reduserer driftskostnader. Turistomtale i elektroniske medier blir stadig viktigere for reismålenes image og turisters reiseatferd. Sosiale media gjør tilbyder-kundeforholdet mer transparent. Mer konkurranse mellom destinasjoner og større forbrukermakt. Mobilteknologi og flere mobile tjenester som dekker avsidesliggende områder, vil oppfordre turister til å besøke og oppleve nye, ukjente naturområder. For naturbasert reiseliv forventes utstrakt bruk av internett (Internet of Things) å kunne være til hjelp i forvaltingen av turiststrømmer i naturområder, forbedre trafikkstyringen allment og raffinere overvåkningen av sårbare økosystemer. Mer tilrettelegging for aktiviteter innendørs (indoorization) og kunstig oppbygde arenaer kan signalisere et skifte bort fra rekreasjonsaktiviteter i naturomgivelser, men det er også argumentert for at slike nye tilbud kan stimulere deltakelse i naturbasert reiseliv. Økonomiske trender • Økonomisk vekst i utviklede økonomier. Økonomisk vekst, økende inntekter og mer disponibel tid i utviklede land gjør det mulig for flere å bruke mer tid på naturbaserte opplevelser. • Økonomisk vekst i utviklingsøkonomier. Økonomisk vekst i BRIC-landenes utviklingsøkonomier, spesielt i Kina og India, vil i betydelig grad bidra til ekspansjon i reisevirksomheten. Dette fører til endinger i den kulturelle og etniske sammensetningen av turister som ankommer EU. Disse gjestene har annerledes turistatferd, forventninger og krav; kinesiske turister utviser større interesse for passiv nytelse av natur og landskap (sightseeing) framfor å engasjere seg i aktive naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter. • Delingsøkonomi. Kommersielle foretak som hoteller, restauranter og turoperatører utfordres og blir gradvis erstattet av individer som tilbyr budsjettvennlige tjenester som overnatting, transport, utflukter og måltider. • Drivstoffkostnader. Til tross for tidvise reduksjoner forventes oljeprisen å stige, noe om vil påvirke folks tilbøyelighet til å reise på en negativ måte på grunn av økte priser på flybilletter og introduksjon av ekstra drivstoffavgifter. Strategier for å hindre utslipp av drivhusgasser forventes å begrense/ hindre fremtidig reisevirksomhet. Miljøtrender • Klimaendringer. Har direkte påvirkning på naturbasert reiseliv. Vinterturismen vil bli negativt påvirket i regioner som Nord-Europa og Nord-Amerika ettersom vintrene blir varmere og våtere; lavtliggende skidestinasjoner forventes å få økonomiske problemer som følge av redusert snødekke og mindre besøk. Det vil bli press på kapasiteten i mer snøsikre, høytliggende områder. Hundekjøring og snøskuterkjøring forventes å bli negativt påvirket på grunn av mindre snø. Klimaendringer fører til at isbreene trekker seg tilbake, noe som fører til at ikke bare deres estetiske verdi, men også økonomiske verdi knyttet til naturbaserte aktiviteter som sightseeing, brevandringer og skiturer, reduseres. Klimaendringene fører også til bleking av koraller og miljømessig degradering av marine områder som påvirker dykke- og snorklingsaktiviteter. • Arealbruk og landskapsendringer. Faktorer som urbanisering, befolkningsnedgang i distriktene, eksploatering av arealer til veibygging og energiproduksjon har alle ført til ulike typer av endringer av landskaper og tap av deres estetiske verdier. Intakte naturlandskaper er en sentral forutsetning for naturbasert reiseliv. Derfor har de nevnte faktorene negative konsekvenser for naturbasert reiseliv ettersom attraktiviteten i turistlandskapene og kvaliteten på turistopplevelsene reduseres. Konfliktene mellom ulike interessenter (turisme, skogbruk, energiproduksjon) er også dokumentert i litteraturen. Verneområder er ofte viktige attraksjoner i det naturbaserte turismesystemet, og nyere miljøpolitikk i Skandinavia understreker behovet for å integrere det naturbaserte reiselivet med områdevern til gjensidig nytte for begge parter. Politiske trender • Politisk turbulens. Krig og terrorisme. Politisk turbulens i regioner som Midtøsten, Afrika og deler av Asia forventes å redusere turiststrømmene i alminnelighet, men vil kunne øke attraktiviteten til destinasjonsområder som anses som trygge. Turistattraksjoner som tiltrekker seg store ansamlinger av besøkende (f.eks. kjente naturattraksjoner), er mer utsatt for terroranslag og vil ha behov for sikkerhetstiltak. Tap av naturarv på grunn av krig og uro er påpekt i litteraturen, og eksempler på ødelagte nasjonalparker og ruinerte naturbaserte reiselivsnæringer i land med politisk turbulens og terror er også dokumentert. • Endringer i grensekontroller. Endringer i grensekontroller gjennom introduseringen og implementeringen av avtaler som Schengen-samarbeidet eller Kinas utreisebestemmelser (Approved Destination Status, ‘ADS’) har redusert grenserestriksjoner og utløst enorme reisemuligheter i flere regioner rundt om i verden. Kinas ADS er forventet å bli verdens største utreisemarked i 2020. • Helserisiko. Den vedvarende økningen i internasjonal reisevirksomhet er en drivkraft i oppblomstringen og spredningen av infeksjonssykdommer (Zika eller Ebola-virus). Fremtidig spredning av vedvarende livstruende sykdommer kan bidra til at internasjonal reisevirksomhet oppfattes som en personlig risiko. Reiseaktiviteten kan tenkes å bli strengt regulert for å unngå spredning av virussykdommer i turistområdene. • Geopolitikk. I dagens globaliserte verden er turismen et redskap for å nå visse geopolitiske mål. For eksempel er felles sportsbegivenheter i Samveldenasjonene et instrument for å ivareta samholdet blant disse nasjonene. Kinas ADS er et politisk verktøy. Regionale blokker som den nordamerikanske og europeiske frihandelsavtalen påvirker også turistbevegelsene. Rapporten er finansiert av BIOTOUR – et fireårig forskningsprosjekt der formålet er å identifisere nøkkelbetingelser for videreutvikling av naturbasert reiseliv i norsk bioøkonomi som sikrer næringsutvikling, robuste lokalsamfunn og bærekraftig ressursbruk (www.nmbu.no/biotour)

Balancing tourism development and nature protection across national park borders - a case study of a coastal protected area in Norway

acceptedVersio

The role of psychographic factors in naturebased tourist expenditure

Numerous studies have examined the relationship between tourist expenditure and observable characteristics of the individual and the trip. We add latent variables based on psychographic factors into a model of expenditure by nature-based tourists. This study models the log of per person trip expenditure by domestic and international visitors in a Norwegian alpine national park region as a function of psychographic factors as well as traditional measures of trip and demographic characteristics. In the regression models, factor scores were utilized from nature orientation, recreation experience preference (REP), a new ecological paradigm (NEP) and wilderness preference (WPS) scales. Higher scores on a NEP environmentalism factor were associated with higher expenditure, while higher scores on a REP risk seeking factor were associated with lower expenditure. Higher scores on a risk seeking, or challenge factor, from the nature orientation scale was associated with lower expenditure, while higher scores on an inspiration seeking factor were associated with higher expenditure. Structural equation models were then estimated for comparison. The implications for tourism management and marketing are discussed.acceptedVersio

Mimisbrunnr Climate Park - a network for heritage learning, tourism development, and climate consciousness

Increased ice melting revealed in 2006–2007 many reminiscences of ancient human activity around ice patches near Mt Galdhøpiggen, Norway's highest mountain peak. The public limited company “Klimapark 2469 AS” was established to develop a heritage interpretation product and to study climate change. A 60-metre long ice tunnel is excavated in the ice patch Juvfonna, where guided walks and a display presenting climate change, archeology, Norse mythology, and glaciology are offered. The heritage product, “Mimisbrunnr Climate Park 2469” (MK2469), is based on collaboration between scientific institutions, public authorities, the National Mountain Museum, and private tourist companies. The ambition is to combine science, environmental learning, interpretation, heritage tourism, and local development. Based on interviews and relevant documents, we have studied the network – the actors, their ambitions, and networking processes: What are the perceived opportunities, challenges, outcomes, and success factors? Good strategic work has resulted in extensive public funding and sponsorship, and MK2469 has become a diverse, quality heritage product, but so far with little commercial success. An important outcome is the fruitful exchange of experiences, between public and private partners, tourism and science interests, amateurs and professionals, and between local, regional and national actors. The network has shown to be quite dynamic.Mimisbrunnr Climate Park - a network for heritage learning, tourism development, and climate consciousnesspublishedVersionacceptedVersio

Do visitors gaze and reproduce what destination managers wish to commercialise? Perceived and projected image in the UNESCO World Heritage area ‘West Norwegian Fjords’

Destination image plays a key role in helping people decide where to travel and affects satisfaction, likelihood of return visits and word of mouth. While photography is not the only way of projecting and perceiving an image, ‘a picture paints a thousand words’. The rise of social media and usergenerated content has made the image formation process more complex, and has reduced the extent of control that tourism suppliers can exert on the image they wish to project. It is thus necessary to further investigate whether tourists reproduce the commercialised image in what the literature calls the ‘hermeneutic circle of representation’ or capture and share their own impressions. This study constructs a categorisation scheme for conducting photography-based image analysis to compare images of two Norwegian destinations as projected by destination management organisations with those shared by Instagram users (perceived image). Results indicate that this circle of representation is not hermeneutic