Dietary Exposure Among Adults in Selangor, Malaysia, to Heterocyclic Amines and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Cooked Meat and Fish

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are possible human carcinogens and potent mutagens which increase the incidence of colon, mammary, prostate, breast and other cancers in rodents. Food containing meat and fish are the most important source of exposure to HCAs and PAHs in the diet and heat-treated foods, especially those which are fried, broiled and grilled. The intake of HCAs and PAHs are influenced by the amount and type of meat and fish ingested, frequency of consumption, cooking methods, cooking temperature and duration of cooking. The aim of the present study was to determine the level of HCAs and PAHs in the most consumed foods in Selangor, Malaysia in order to estimate their exposure to these toxic compounds. The dietary intake of HCAs and PAHs in foods consumed by people in Selangor, Malaysia was determined. Levels of six HCAs, namely: 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), 2-amino-3-4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoline (MeIQ), 2-amino-3-8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4, 8-DiMeIQx), 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and 2-amino-3,7,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5f] quinoxaline (7,8-DiMeIQx) and three PAHs, fluoranthene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene were measured. Forty-two samples of meat and fish were included in the study. High-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detector and fluorescence detector was used to analyze HCAs and PAHs, respectively. Dietary food consumption data (g/day), including meat type and cooking method were obtained using food frequency questionnaires, which were completed by 600 randomly selected subjects aged above 18 years. Results of the study showed that the level of total HCAs in food samples studied ranged from 0 to 38.7 ng/g whereas the level of total PAHs was, 0 to 66.28 ng/g. Among the analyzed HCAs and PAHs, PhIP (30.6 ng/g) and fluoranthene (50.96 ng/g) showed the highest level, respectively. The highest level of total HCAs was found in grilled chicken satay (38.7 ng/g) and for PAHs it was in grilled beef satay (66.28 ng/g). The most abundant HCAs such as PhIP and MeIQx, and for PAHs such as fluoranthene were detected in the food products studied. The 4,8-DiMeIQx, 7,8-DiMeIQx (HCAs) for HCAs and benzo[a]pyrene for PAHs were found in 12 and 22% of the meat and fish dishes. The average daily intake level of HCAs was 553.7 ng/capita/day and for PAHs of 297.58 ng/capita/day. The intake of PhIP was the highest, followed by MeIQx and MeIQ, whereas intake of fluoranthene was the highest, followed by benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene. The results reveal that grilled and fried meat and fish products were the major contributors to the exposure of HCAs and PAH

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Of Mango Seed Kernel Fat Blended With Palm Oil Mid-Fraction And Palm Stearin To Formulate Cocoa Butter Replacers

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an important annual tropical fruit. Mango seed kernel (MSK) which is industrial by-product contains considerable amount of cocoa butter analogy fats. It is remarkable that no reports on the extraction of the mango seed kernel fat (MSKF) using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) have been published. The aim of this work is to blend SC-CO2 extracted MSKF with palm oil mid-fraction (POMF) and palm stearin (PS) to formulate new cocoa butter replacers (CBRs). The physico-chemical properties, thermal properties, solid fat content (SFC) and morphology for the blends of MSKF: POMF and MSKF: PS conducted using different chromatographic and thermal techniques. Optimization of the SC-CO2 extraction parameters of MSKF from MSK were conducted using central composite design (CCD) of response surface methodology (RSM). The variables considered in the study are pressure (20-50 MPa), temperature (40-80 °C), and CO2 flow rate (1-4 ml/min). The optimized fat yield was predicted to be 11.29% at 44.2 MPa, 72.2 ºC and CO2 flow rate of 3.4 ml/min which was close to the fat yield (11.7%) of Soxhlet extraction. The blends containing 70 to 85% of MSKF had physico-chemical properties like fatty acid profiles, iodine value (IV), slip melting point (SMP), saponification value (SPV) and acid value (AV) close to that of commercial CB. Results showed that the major TG ranges in all blends were POP 11-38.8%, SOS 22.1-36.9%, and POS 15.4-16.2%, respectively

Evaluation of biochemical and bioactive properties of native and imported pomegranate (Punica granatum l.) cultivars found in Bangladesh

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is one of the oldest known and nutrient rich edible fruits.Peel and Arils of three available cultivars of this fruit in Bangladesh namely, Bangladesh pomegranate, Indian-Mridula and Egypt pomegranate were analyzed to evaluate their biochemical and bioactive properties. The ash, crude fiber, lipid, moisture, pH, titratable acidity, total soluble solid, total sugar as well as bioactive properties included DPPH radical scavenging activity, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total tannin content (TTC) and vitamin C were assessed in the study. The results of the analysis showed that the ash, pH, titratable acidity, moisture, total sugar ranged from 0.26-0.93%, 3.54-4.01, 1.40-1.87%, 75.43-81.20%, 9.02-10.12 g DE/100g for aril and 1-2.03%, 3.53-4.12, 1.75-1.88%, 71.69-76.65%,21.14-29.19 g DE/100g for peel respectively. However, the seed of all cultivars contained significantly (p<0.05) higher amount of lipid and crude fiber than peel especially high lipid content in the seed of Mridula (23.30 g/100g) and peel of Egypt pomegranate (11.76 g/100g)and high crude fiber content in the seed of Bangladesh pomegranate (64.96 g/100g) and peel of Mridula (15.61 g/100g). The peel showed markedly higher DPPH radical scavenging activity, TPC, TFC, TTC and vitamin C than aril. The cultivar behaved as the most influencing factor for variation among the values of individual parameters observed. The findings suggested that pomegranate peel appeared to have more potential as health supplement and rich in natural antioxidants than aril

Fatty-Acid Profiles, Triacylglycerol Compositions, and Crystalline Structures of Bambangan-Seed Fat Extracted Using Different Solvents

Currently, research on the bambangan-fruit seed has become interesting because of its potential application as a cocoa butter alternative. This work aimed to determine the changes in the quality of the extracted bambangan-seed fat (BSF) obtained using hexane, petroleum ether, and ethanol. The extraction solvents affected the total fat content (TFC), physicochemical properties, fatty-acid profile, triacylglycerol composition, and crystalline structure of the extracted BSF. The results showed that BSF has a high content of 1,3-distreoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol (SOS). The solvent-type significantly (p < 0.05) impacts the stearic and oleic acids of the extracts, resulting in apparent changes in the high-melting symmetrical triacylglycerols, such as SOS. Petroleum-ether-extracted BSF has a high stearic acid of 33.40%, followed by that of hexane- and ethanol-extracted BSF at 29.29% and 27.84%, respectively. Moreover, the spherulitic microstructure with needle-like crystals of the extracts also ranges from 30 to 70 µm in diameter. Hexane-extracted BSF illustrated a less-dense, spherulitic, crystalline microstructure with a less-granular centre than those extracted using the other solvents. The results suggested that the quality of the extracted BSF obtained from the nonpolar solvents of hexane and petroleum ether are better than that extracted using ethanol

Effect of solvent pre-treatment on the physicochemical, thermal profiles and morphological behavior of mangifera pajang seed fat

In this work, the effect of solvent pre-treatment (hexane, petroleum ether and ethanol) on the physicochemical, thermal and morphology behavior of Mangifera pajang seed fat (MPSF) were investigated. The results showed that the yield, physicochemical, and crystalline structures of the MPSF were significantly (p<0.05) influenced by the extraction solvents. Hexane gave the highest fat yield (7.67%) with low unsaturation value (52.13 g iodine/g) compared with petroleum ether and ethanol. Hexane MPSF also had low oxidation rate (peroxide value of 1.1 mEq/g). Both non-stabilized and stabilized hexane MPSF showed a single melting endothermic peak at high temperature with onset, maximum peak and offset temperature of 16.23 ˚C-18.21 ˚C, 28.22 ˚C-31.25 ˚C and 34.85 ˚C-39.58 ˚C, respectively. Hexane MPSF crystallized rapidly at high temperature with single maximum peak starting at 16.51 ˚C-16.68 ˚C and ending at 0.23 ˚C-1.13 ˚C. In comparison with ethanol extract, hexane MPSF demonstrated a compact crystalline structure with a large densely packed center. MPSF exhibited similar melting and morphological behavior to mango kernel fat and commercial cocoa butter. These results suggested that hexane was the best solvent for the extraction of MPSF. This fat also has the potential to be applied as a cocoa butter alternative fat

Effects of different types of soy sauce on the formation of heterocyclic amines in roasted chicken

The objective of the study was to determine the effect of different types of soy sauce and marinating time on the formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) in roasted chicken. Chicken breast samples were marinated with sweet, salty, light and dark soy sauce at 0, 3, 6 and 12 h (control treatment was the chicken without marinade). The concentrations of free amino acids, sugars and creatinine were determined before roasting while HCA concentrations were determined after roasting. All types of soy sauce significantly increased (p ≤ 0.05) the concentration of HCAs in roasted chicken with increasing marinating time. The highest increment of total concentration of HCAs was found in samples marinated with light soy sauce (887%) followed by dark (375%), salty (193%) and sweet (169%) at 12 h. PhIP (2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine) showed a substantial reduction in samples only momentarily marinated with sweet, salty and dark soy sauce (0 h). Free amino acids were found to be more strongly correlated with the formation of HCAs than reducing sugars or creatinine

Functional properties of composite flour: A review

Incorporation of composite flour into wheat flour for bakery goods production is expected to produce an effect in the functional properties of the blended samples. Functional properties of composite flour have been studied in most of the developing countries which used and imported a large amount of wheat flour to fulfil the increasing number of consumers as the higher demand in the development of bakery and pastry products. In this review paper, the characteristics of composite flours were reviewed to determine the suitability of the raw materials to be used in the production of food products. The functional properties such as water and oil absorption capability, foam ability, emulsion capability, least gelation concentration, and particle size distribution might indicate the capability of the composite flour before proceeding to the development of food products were reviewed. The functionality of composite flour was found to be beneficial to enhance the variety of food products with acceptable appearance, organoleptic, nutrition, and low cost to fulfil consumer demands

The Influence of Seaweed Composite Flour on the Physicochemical Properties of Muffin

Seaweed has a great potential to be used as an important ingredient in food processing, as it contains a significant content of soluble polysaccharides and has a potential function as a dietary fiber. In this study, seaweed powder (Kappaphycus alvarezii) was incorporated (2–10%) with wheat flour for the production of muffins. The effect of seaweed composite flour on the quality of muffins was investigated using various techniques, such as texture profile and proximate analyses, as well as sensory evaluation. Modification of the muffin formulation to include seaweed powder improved the composition of ash, crude fiber, and moisture content, while the protein and carbohydrate levels decreased, compared to the control sample. An increase in the seaweed component reduced the muffin height, volume, and specific volume. According to the experimental texture profile analysis data, the seaweed affected the textural characteristics of the muffins, increasing the hardness and decreasing the springiness. Sensory evaluation revealed that seaweed powder could be used in the muffin formulation up to 6%, without significantly impacting the color, aroma, and taste attributes relative to the control sample. For overall acceptability, however, the panelists preferred muffins without seaweed powder

Effects of polar cosolvents on cocoa butter extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide

Cocoa butter was successfully extracted from cocoa liquor by supercritical carbondi oxide (SC-CO2) at 35 MPa, 60 oC and 2 mL/min with 5%, 15% and 25% cosolvents. The extraction yield of tryglicerides (TG) and fatty acid (FA) compositions were significantly influenced by the concentration of polar cosolvents. The SC-CO2 extraction efficiency was increased with cosolvent significantly. Ethanol was found to be the best cosolvent for cocoa butter extraction using SC-CO2 followed by isopropanol and acetone. The triglycerides of POP, POS and SOS were contained in the extracted cocoa butter with POS being the major component. Where palmitic, stearic and oleic were the main fatty acids in the cocoa butter samples, with stearic being the highest component. The lower molecular weight (MW) of TGs and FAs showed the higher selectivity compared to the high MW of TGs and FAs. Thus, they were fractionated during the first stage of SC-CO2 process

Physicochemical and functional properties of cassava flour grown in different locations in Sabah, Malaysia

The tuber of cassava is used as raw materials in the bakery, food, pharmaceutical and garment industries. The nutritional value of cassava roots is important because they are the main part of the plant consumed in developing countries. However, there is much variation in the nutrient quality of the cassava root depends on the several factors, such as geographic location, variety, age of the plant, and environmental conditions. This study was performed to compare and provide information on physicochemical and functional properties of cassava flour planted in two different districts in Sabah, Malaysia, namely Tawau and Semporna. Proximate analysis showed significant differences (p<0.05) in crude protein (2.07 and 2.69%), crude fat (0.55 and 0.68%) and dietary fibre contents (2.38 and 2.09%). Determinations on physicochemical and functional characteristics of the cassava flour showed significant differences (p<0.05) in bulk density (0.57 and 0.79 g/ cm3 ), pH (6.75 and 6.72), colour and foam capacity (3.66 and 7.33%) while there was no significant difference shown in water and oil absorption capacities as well as emulsion capacity. Cassava planted in Semporna was observed to have high values of all pasting property parameters relative to the one planted in Tawau except for the setback viscosity. Gelatinization properties of flours showed significant differences (p<0.05) in onset (70.59 and 68.99°C) and end temperatures (79.81 and 80.03°C)