De la libertad de expresión al derecho a la información

Conviven, en el momento actual, dos concepciones diferentes de la libertad informativa. Una positivista, de trasfondo político, conforme a la cual la libertad la concede el poder y, en consecuencia, el poder que la concede la puede limitar o aun negar. En algunas Declaraciones de derechos y en ciertas Constituciones aparece la concesión de libertad en forma gramatical sustantiva y en el propio texto se confiere a los poderes públicos la potestad de restringirla. Lo que se traduce en la libertad del fuerte, del que sabe y puede utilizar los medios de comunicación, que no tiene en cuenta el sujeto universal de la información. Ofrece la paradoja de que el poder la puede limitar artificialmente; pero, en tanto esta limitación, más o menos arbitraria, no se produce, ¿e invoca para justificar cualquier desmán o irregularidad informativa, también arbitraria. Frente a ella se alza modernamente una concepción naturalista, fundamentada en la existencia de un derecho reconocido, anterior a la norma positiva y superior a ella. La libertad informativa es así la manera de ejercitar el derecho a la información o de hacer efectivo el derecho libremente. Unida modalmente al derecho, adquiere la consistencia natural de este: no es limitable por poderes externos, ni siquiera por el poder público que no ha podido más que reconocer, no conceder, el derecho a la información e incorporarlo al ordenamiento jurídico. Tal derecho tiene su propia estructura interna, que la libertad ha de respetar; y ha de coordinarse con los demás derechos humanos o naturales sobre los que en unos casos prevalecerá y en otros sufrirá una elisión o excepción, que afectará también a la libertad. En conclusión, la idea trabajosa y definitivamente conquistada por el hombre para determinar el ámbito existencial de su actuación no es la de la libertad, sino la del derecho, incluido el derecho a la libertad. Así también en el campo de la información. No se olvide que, en concreto, el ius communicationis fue ya enunciado, definido y perfilado, en el siglo XVI por dos españoles: Francisco de Vitoria y Juan Luis Vives. Los derechos existenciales, derechos humanos o derechos fundamentales, como el derecho a la información, dejarían de serlo si no pudiesen ejercitarse libremente. De esa manera, la libertad sigue la suerte del derecho fundamental en toda su gravidez e ilimitabilidad. La libertad es el único modo de ejercitar el derecho. En otras palabras, tiene un significado adverbial con respecto al significado sustantivo de derecho. He aquí el acierto de nuestra Constitución al reconocer el derecho a la información y al reconocer que ha de ejercitarse "libremente". El sentido de las libertades publicas informativas en España encuentra su servidumbre y su grandeza en esta forma adverbial

La clausula de conciencia desde la perspectiva profesional

From an institutional perspective and previous to the analysis of French legislation, this paper defines the conscience clause as a legal clause which is implicit in the contracting of work in the field of journalism. According to the clause, the economic effects of the cessation of the previously existing work relation in that field stemming from the unilateral will of the worker are equivalent to those that stem from the extinction of the relationship due to the will of the employer. This takes into account certain presuppositions which are typified by Law with reference to the conscience of the informer. From a historical perspective thls notion belongs to the three stages which have been produced with regard to the juridical understanding of the realm of information: enterprisalistic, professionalistic and universalistic stages. After these preliminary considerations, the author then analyses the juridical nature of the clause which -although it proceeds from a legal origen and has an application which is both necessary and identified within the informative labor relation- does not be long to the structural framework of a fictio iuris as is claimed by the majority of writers, but rather defines an intellectual and moral right in terms of the nexus between a particular cause and sorne juridical effects. That particular cause is the very conscience of the informer, the nexus is the professional ethos of the field of information (whose central duty is precisely that of informing), and the effects are more complex than those which arise with regard to simple compensation, since they have repercussions bearing upon the very efficacy of the right to information. The paper then concludes with the utilization of the ideas clearly expressed before, in order to intepret systematically the Spanish juridical framework as it applies to contracting in the field of information

Methodology for measuring exhaust aerosol size distributions using an engine test under transient operating conditions

[EN] A study on the sources of variability in the measurement of particle size distribution using a two-stage dilution system and an engine exhaust particle sizer was conducted to obtain a comprehensive and repeatable methodology that can be used to measure the particle size distribution of aerosols emitted by a light-duty diesel engine under transient operating conditions. The paper includes three experimental phases: an experimental validation of the measurement method; an evaluation of the influence of sampling factors, such as dilution system pre-conditioning; and a study of the effects of the dilution conditions, such as the dilution ratio and the dilution air temperature. An examination of the type and degree of influence of each studied factor is presented, recommendations for reducing variability are given and critical parameter values are identified to develop a highly reliable measurement methodology that could be applied to further studies on the effect of engine operating parameters on exhaust particle size distributions. © 2011 IOP Publishing Ltd.The translation of this paper was funded by the Universidad Politecnica de Valencia, Spain.Desantes, J.; Bermúdez, V.; Molina, S.; Linares Rodríguez, WG. (2011). Methodology for measuring exhaust aerosol size distributions using an engine test under transient operating conditions. Measurement Science and Technology. 22(11):1-14. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/22/11/115101S1142211Dobbins, R. A. (2007). Hydrocarbon Nanoparticles Formed in Flames and Diesel Engines. Aerosol Science and Technology, 41(5), 485-496. doi:10.1080/02786820701225820Davidson, C. I., Phalen, R. F., & Solomon, P. A. (2005). Airborne Particulate Matter and Human Health: A Review. Aerosol Science and Technology, 39(8), 737-749. doi:10.1080/02786820500191348McDonald, J. D., Barr, E. B., & White, R. K. (2004). Design, Characterization, and Evaluation of a Small-Scale Diesel Exhaust Exposure System. Aerosol Science and Technology, 38(1), 62-78. doi:10.1080/02786820490247623Brown, D. M., Wilson, M. R., MacNee, W., Stone, V., & Donaldson, K. (2001). Size-Dependent Proinflammatory Effects of Ultrafine Polystyrene Particles: A Role for Surface Area and Oxidative Stress in the Enhanced Activity of Ultrafines. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 175(3), 191-199. doi:10.1006/taap.2001.9240Lighty, J. S., Veranth, J. M., & Sarofim, A. F. (2000). Combustion Aerosols: Factors Governing Their Size and Composition and Implications to Human Health. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 50(9), 1565-1618. doi:10.1080/10473289.2000.10464197Kittelson, D. B. (1998). Engines and nanoparticles. Journal of Aerosol Science, 29(5-6), 575-588. doi:10.1016/s0021-8502(97)10037-4Dockery, D. W., Pope, C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J. D., Ware, J. H., Fay, M. E., … Speizer, F. E. (1993). An Association between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities. New England Journal of Medicine, 329(24), 1753-1759. doi:10.1056/nejm199312093292401Sem, G. J. (2002). Design and performance characteristics of three continuous-flow condensation particle counters: a summary. Atmospheric Research, 62(3-4), 267-294. doi:10.1016/s0169-8095(02)00014-5Ankilov, A., Baklanov, A., Colhoun, M., Enderle, K.-H., Gras, J., Julanov, Y., … Zagaynov, V. (2002). Intercomparison of number concentration measurements by various aerosol particle counters. Atmospheric Research, 62(3-4), 177-207. doi:10.1016/s0169-8095(02)00010-8Wiedensohlet, A., Orsini, D., Covert, D. S., Coffmann, D., Cantrell, W., Havlicek, M., … Litchy, M. (1997). Intercomparison Study of the Size-Dependent Counting Efficiency of 26 Condensation Particle Counters. Aerosol Science and Technology, 27(2), 224-242. doi:10.1080/02786829708965469Giechaskiel, B., Ntziachristos, L., & Samaras, Z. (2004). Calibration and modelling of ejector dilutors for automotive exhaust sampling. Measurement Science and Technology, 15(11), 2199-2206. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/15/11/004Cheng, M.-D., Storey, J. M., Wainman, T., & Dam, T. (2002). Impacts of venturi turbulent mixing on the size distributions of sodium chloride and dioctyl-phthalate aerosols. Journal of Aerosol Science, 33(3), 491-502. doi:10.1016/s0021-8502(01)00180-xHueglin, C., Scherrer, L., & Burtscher, H. (1997). An accurate, continuously adjustable dilution system (1:10 to 1:104) for submicron aerosols. Journal of Aerosol Science, 28(6), 1049-1055. doi:10.1016/s0021-8502(96)00485-5Lyyränen, J., Jokiniemi, J., Kauppinen, E. I., Backman, U., & Vesala, H. (2004). Comparison of Different Dilution Methods for Measuring Diesel Particle Emissions. Aerosol Science and Technology, 38(1), 12-23. doi:10.1080/02786820490247579Wong, C. P., Chan, T. L., & Leung, C. W. (2003). Characterisation of diesel exhaust particle number and size distributions using mini-dilution tunnel and ejector–diluter measurement techniques. Atmospheric Environment, 37(31), 4435-4446. doi:10.1016/s1352-2310(03)00571-5Liu, Z. G., Ford, D. C., Vasys, V. N., Chen, D.-R., & Johnson, T. R. (2007). Influence of Engine Operating Conditions on Diesel Particulate Matter Emissions in Relation to Transient and Steady-State Conditions. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(13), 4593-4599. doi:10.1021/es0616229Liu, Z. G., Vasys, V. N., & Kittelson, D. B. (2007). Nuclei-Mode Particulate Emissions and Their Response to Fuel Sulfur Content and Primary Dilution during Transient Operations of Old and Modern Diesel Engines. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(18), 6479-6483. doi:10.1021/es0629007Desantes, J. M., Bermúdez, V., Pastor, J. V., & Fuentes, E. (2004). Methodology for measuring exhaust aerosol size distributions from heavy duty diesel engines by means of a scanning mobility particle sizer. Measurement Science and Technology, 15(10), 2083-2098. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/15/10/019Lapuerta, M., Armas, O., & Gómez, A. (2003). Diesel Particle Size Distribution Estimation from Digital Image Analysis. Aerosol Science and Technology, 37(4), 369-381. doi:10.1080/02786820300970Wiedensohler, A. (1988). An approximation of the bipolar charge distribution for particles in the submicron size range. Journal of Aerosol Science, 19(3), 387-389. doi:10.1016/0021-8502(88)90278-9Wen, H. Y., Reischl, G. P., & Kasper, G. (1984). Bipolar diffusion charging of fibrous aerosol particles—II. charge and electrical mobility measurements on linear chain aggregates. Journal of Aerosol Science, 15(2), 103-122. doi:10.1016/0021-8502(84)90030-2Oh, H., Park, H., & Kim, S. (2004). Effects of Particle Shape on the Unipolar Diffusion Charging of Nonspherical Particles. Aerosol Science and Technology, 38(11), 1045-1053. doi:10.1080/027868290883324Matti Maricq, M. (2007). Chemical characterization of particulate emissions from diesel engines: A review. Journal of Aerosol Science, 38(11), 1079-1118. doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2007.08.001Katz, J. L. (1970). Condensation of a Supersaturated Vapor. I. The Homogeneous Nucleation of the n‐Alkanes. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 52(9), 4733-4748. doi:10.1063/1.1673706Burtscher, H. (2005). Physical characterization of particulate emissions from diesel engines: a review. Journal of Aerosol Science, 36(7), 896-932. doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2004.12.001Mamakos, A., Ntziachristos, L., & Samaras, Z. (2004). Comparability of particle emission measurements between vehicle testing laboratories: a long way to go. Measurement Science and Technology, 15(9), 1855-1866. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/15/9/02

Correlations for the ignition characteristics of six different fuels and their application to predict ignition delays under transient thermodynami conditions

[EN] The ignition characteristics of six different fuels have been correlated as a function of the temperature, pressure, equivalence ratio and oxygen molar fraction in this investigation. More specifically, the ignition delay referred to cool flames, the high-temperature ignition delay and the critical concentrations and ignition times of HO2 and CH2O have been parameterized for n-dodecane, PRFO, PRF25, PRF50, PRF75 and PRF100. To do so, a wide database of ignition data of the aforementioned fuels has been generated by means of chemical simulations in CHEMKIN, solving a detailed mechanism for PRF mixtures and a reduced mechanism for n-dodecane. In fact, in cylinder engine-like conditions reached in a Rapid Compression Expansion Machine (RCEM) have been replicated. The mathematical correlations have shown a relative deviation around 20% with the database in the low-temperature, low-pressure zone, which is the typical accuracy of usual correlations for the ignition delay. Finally, the ignition delay under transient conditions measured in the RCEM has been predicted by means of different integral methods coupled to both the proposed correlations and the generated database. It has been found that deviations between the predictions obtained with the correlations or with the database are lower than 1%. This means that the correlations are accurate enough to predict the ignition time in spite of showing high deviation with the database, since the low-temperature, low-pressure zone has a minor contribution to the ignition delay.The authors would like to thank different members of the CMT-Motores Termicos team of the Universitat Politecnica de Valencia for their contribution to this work. The authors would also like to thank the Spanish Ministry of Education for financing the PhD. Studies of Dario Lopez-Pintor (grant FPU13/02329). This research has been partially funded by FEDER and the Spanish Government through project TRA2015-67136-R.Desantes, J.; Bermúdez, V.; López, JJ.; López-Pintor, D. (2017). Correlations for the ignition characteristics of six different fuels and their application to predict ignition delays under transient thermodynami conditions. Energy Conversion and Management. 152:124-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.09.030S12413515