Microbiological Water Quality of Urban Streams and the Health Implications: Case Study of Sosiani River Eldoret Municipality, Kenya

This study sot to assess the seasonal and longitudinal variations in microbiological properties of water quality in Sosiani River and the health implications on the residents of Eldoret Municipality, Kenya. In an experimental design, water samples were collected upstream midstream and downstream of Eldoret town from 13 effluent discharge points for a period of one year during the dry and wet seasons. Samples were analysed using APHA, 2012 water sampling procedures. Survey data on waterborne diseases was collected from the two government hospitals in Eldoret town: MTRH and Uasin Gishu County Hospital. Results were analysed using SPSS version 20 for ANOVA and correlation analysis. Sosiani River exhibited high mean levels of faecal and total coliform (1708.96CFU/100ml and 776.76CFU/100ml respectively) above WHO/NEMA standards of nil CFU/100ml. Faecal coliform varied significantly downstream (F=77.89 P< 0.001) just like the total coliform (F=93.92 P<0.001). Total and faecal coliform increased significantly during the wet season (P<0.17, P< 0.039 respectively). The coliform content showed a positive significant correlation with waterborne diseases which were identified as diarrhoea, typhoid and dysentery. The study concludes that water from Sosiani River is polluted and is not suitable for human consumption and or recreation purposes. Water sourced from Sosiani River should be treated before consumption. Keywords: Sosiani River, Microbiological water quality, Faecal and total coliform, waterborne disease

Seasonal and Longitudinal Variations of Water Quality in an Urban Stream: Case Study of Sosiani River Uasin Gishu County, Kenya

The study sought to analyse longitudinal and seasonal variations in physico-chemical properties of water quality in Sosiani River in Eldoret town, Kenya. An experimental design was used to collect water samples upstream midstream and downstream of Eldoret town for a period of one year during the dry and wet seasons. Samples were collected from effluent discharge points in accordance with APHA, 2012 water sampling procedures. Sosiani River exhibited significant variation in physico-chemical water parameters along the river and during rainy seasons. TSS varied significantly across the river at F= 185.52 P < 0.001 and during the wet season (P< 0.045). TDS varied significantly along the river (F= 59.0129 at p<0.001) with a significant positive correlation at P< 0.001 during wet season. Turbidity varied significantly along the sampling points F= 32.41 P< 0,001 and varied significantly p<0.028 during the rainy season. BOD varied significantly along the river (F= 78.95 & P < 0.001) with a significant positive correlation P<0.038 during the rainy season. COD varied significantly along the river (F=77.64 & P<0.001) and during wet season. Water temperature varied significantly along the river (F=185.52, p<0.001) and with the onset of the rainy season (P<0.013). Water pH varied significantly along the sampling points (F= 159.85 & P <0.001). However, pH did not vary significantly during the wet season (P<0.616). This river is polluted, turbid with low dissolved oxygen and high BOD hence not suitable for aquatic life. However the water quality improves downstream perhaps due to self cleansing ability of the river. Hence the water is not suitable for human consumption and or recreation purposes. The water should be treated and municipal effluent channelled into effluent treatment works for pre-treatment. Keywords: Sosiani River, physicochemical water quality, seasonal and longitudinal variation

Spatial Temporal Distribution of Selected Heavy Metals in an Urban Stream: Case Study of Sosiani River in Eldoret Municipality Kenya

This study aimed at assessing the seasonal and longitudinal variations in four selected heavy metals associated with industries in Eldoret Municipality along Sosiani River in Uasin Gishu County. An experimental design was used to collect water samples upstream midstream and downstream of Eldoret town. Samples were collected from 13 different effluent discharge points in accordance to APHA, 2012 water sampling procedures along the river for a period of one year during the dry and wet seasons. The heavy metals were analysed using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (ASS Spectronic 21D) flame atomizer method. Results were analysed using SPSS version 20 for ANOVA and correlation analysis. Sosiani River exhibited both seasonal and spatial distribution of these heavy metals. The concentrations were lowest upstream at the source of the river but increased midstream as the river drained more effluent. However, they declined further downstream in Turbo town which perhaps suggests self purification ability of Sosiani River. There was significant variation in Zn levels (F=305.70 & P< 0.001), Cd levels (F= 2.71 P<0.003) Pb levels (F= 72.26 P<0.001) and Cr levels (F=140.26 P<0.001) along the river and with the onset of rainy season.  Levels of Zn and Cr were below NEMA/WHO standards while Cd and Pb were above NEMA/WHO standards hence a health concern. The study recommends that Municipal effluent should be channelled into effluent treatment works for pre-treatment and all facilities discharging effluent should develop wetlands if not connected to the sewer line. ELDOWAS should include chemical treatment in Huruma sewage treatment plant to improve the efficacy of treatment of heavy metals and construct a wetland. Key words: Sosiani River, water quality variations, Heavy metal

Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya

Utilisation of water from unimproved water sources coupled with inadequate access to sanitation can adversely affect human health. This study undertaken from November 2014 to March, 2015 sought to assess the household water handling practices and relate them to the prevalent diseases in Baringo Central and South, Kenya. A Household sanitary survey was conducted and questionnaires were administered to 100 household heads within the study area. The data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated that 72% of the households (n = 100) collected water for cooking and drinking from the water pans. Only 34% of the households treated water commonly using boiling (19%), filtration with cloth (2%), chlorine (11%) before using it for drinking. There was a positive correlation between methods used in accessing water from drinking water storage containers and water related diseases prevalent in the study area (p < 0.05). Household drinking water in the study area did not meet the WHO drinking water quality guidelines mainly due to poor handling practices at the household level. There is a need to promote water, sanitation and hygiene campaigns in the study area to prevent water related diseases at the household level

Mangroves in peril: unprecedented degradation rates of peri-urban mangroves in Kenya

Marine ecosystems are experiencing unprecedented degradation rates higher than any other ecosystem on the planet, which in some instances are up to 4 times those of rainforests. Mangrove ecosystems have especially been impacted by compounded anthropogenic pressures leading to significant cover reductions of between 35 and 50% (equivalent to 1–2% loss pa) for the last half century. The main objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that peri-urban mangroves suffering from compounded and intense pressures may be experiencing higher degradation rates than the global mean (and/or national mean for Kenya) using Mombasa mangroves (comprising Tudor and Mwache creeks) as a case study. Stratified sampling was used to sample along 22 and 10 belt transects in Mwache and Tudor respectively, set to capture stand heterogeneity in terms of species composition and structure in addition to perceived human pressure gradients using proximity to human habitations as a proxy. We acquired SPOT (HRV/ HRVIR/ HRS) images of April 1994, May 2000 and January 2009 and a vector mangrove map of 1992 at a scale of 1:50 000 for cover change and species composition analysis. Results from image classification of the 2009 image had 80.23% overall accuracy and Cohen's kappa of 0.77, thus proving satisfactory for use in this context. Structural data indicate that complexity index (CI) which captures stand structural development was higher in Mwache at 1.80 compared to Tudor at 1.71. From cover change data, Tudor lost 86.9% of the forest between 1992 and 2009, compared to Mwache at 45.4%, representing very high hitherto undocumented degradation rates of 5.1 and 2.7% pa, respectively. These unprecedentedly high degradation rates, which far exceed not only the national mean (for Kenya of 0.7% pa) but the global mean as well, strongly suggest that these mangroves are highly threatened due to compounded pressures. Strengthening of governance regimes through enforcement and compliance to halt illegal wood extraction, improvement of land-use practices upstream to reduce soil erosion, restoration in areas where natural regeneration has been impaired, provision of alternative energy sources/building materials and a complete moratorium on wood extraction especially in Tudor Creek to allow recovery are some of the suggested management interventions

The Predominant CD4+ Th1 Cytokine Elicited to Chlamydia trachomatis Infection in Women Is Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha and Not Interferon Gamma

Chlamydia trachomatis infection is the most prevalent bacterial sexually transmitted infection and can cause significant reproductive morbidity in women. There is insufficient knowledge of C. trachomatis-specific immune responses in humans, which could be important in guiding vaccine development efforts. In contrast, murine models have clearly demonstrated the essential role of T helper type 1 (Th1) cells, especially interferon gamma (IFN-γ)-producing CD4+ T cells, in protective immunity to chlamydia. To determine the frequency and magnitude of Th1 cytokine responses elicited to C. trachomatis infection in humans, we stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 90 chlamydia-infected women with C. trachomatis elementary bodies, Pgp3, and major outer membrane protein and measured IFN-γ-, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)-, and interleukin-2 (IL-2)-producing CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses using intracellular cytokine staining. The majority of chlamydia-infected women elicited CD4+ TNF-α responses, with frequency and magnitude varying significantly depending on the C. trachomatis antigen used. CD4+ IFN-γ and IL-2 responses occurred infrequently, as did production of any of the three cytokines by CD8+ T cells. About one-third of TNF-α-producing CD4+ T cells coproduced IFN-γ or IL-2. In summary, the predominant Th1 cytokine response elicited to C. trachomatis infection in women was a CD4+ TNF-α response, not CD4+ IFN-γ, and a subset of the CD4+ TNF-α-positive cells produced a second Th1 cytokine

Usefulness of hospital emergency department records to explore access to injury care in Nepal

© 2016, Bhatta et al. Background: Injuries are a major public health problem worldwide. Despite increasing morbidity and mortality from injuries in Nepal, it is not recognised in the government’s policy and programmes and few population-based studies have been published. This study describes the usefulness of hospital emergency department records to explore access to injury care in Nepal. Methods: A retrospective ED-based study was conducted at a governmental hospital in Nepal to review the routinely collected data for 1year (1 January 2010 to 31 December 2010). The study was designed to provide cross-sectional data to describe the distribution of injuries by age, gender, ethnic group and injury mechanism. Results: Results showed that twice as many males as females attended the emergency department (14.6 vs. 7.0 per 1000), attendance varied by age with most (39.8%) attendances in young adults of working age and over half of attendances were from just two ethnic groups (Brahmin (26%) and Tamang (25.5%). Road traffic injuries were the most common cause of injury (37.6%). Conclusions: This study therefore showed the feasibility of using routinely collected hospital emergency department data to monitor injury inequalities in Nepal

Animal influence on water, sanitation and hygiene measures for zoonosis control at the household level: A systematic literature review

Neglected zoonotic diseases (NZDs) have a significant impact on the livelihoods of the world’s poorest populations, which often lack access to basic services. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) programmes are included among the key strategies for achieving the World Health Organization’s 2020 Roadmap for Implementation for control of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). There exists a lack of knowledge regarding the effect of animals on the effectiveness of WASH measures. This review looked to identify how animal presence in the household influences the effectiveness of water, hygiene and sanitation measures for zoonotic disease control in low and middle income countries; to identify gaps of knowledge regarding this topic based on the amount and type of studies looking at this particular interaction