1,552 research outputs found
Atmospheric effects of stellar cosmic rays on Earth-like exoplanets orbiting M-dwarfs
M-dwarf stars are generally considered favourable for rocky planet detection.
However, such planets may be subject to extreme conditions due to possible high
stellar activity. The goal of this work is to determine the potential effect of
stellar cosmic rays on key atmospheric species of Earth-like planets orbiting
in the habitable zone of M-dwarf stars and show corresponding changes in the
planetary spectra. We build upon the cosmic rays model scheme of Grenfell et
al. (2012), who considered cosmic ray induced NOx production, by adding further
cosmic ray induced production mechanisms (e.g. for HOx) and introducing primary
protons of a wider energy range (16 MeV - 0.5 TeV). Previous studies suggested
that planets in the habitable zone that are subject to strong flaring
conditions have high atmospheric methane concentrations, while their ozone
biosignature is completely destroyed. Our current study shows, however, that
adding cosmic ray induced HOx production can cause a decrease in atmospheric
methane abundance of up to 80\%. Furthermore, the cosmic ray induced HOx
molecules react with NOx to produce HNO, which produces strong HNO
signals in the theoretical spectra and reduces NOx-induced catalytic
destruction of ozone so that more than 25\% of the ozone column remains. Hence,
an ozone signal remains visible in the theoretical spectrum (albeit with a
weaker intensity) when incorporating the new cosmic ray induced NOx and HOx
schemes, even for a constantly flaring M-star case. We also find that HNO
levels may be high enough to be potentially detectable. Since ozone
concentrations, which act as the key shield against harmful UV radiation, are
affected by cosmic rays via NOx-induced catalytic destruction of ozone, the
impact of stellar cosmic rays on surface UV fluxes is also studied.Comment: 14 pages, 12 figure
Galactic cosmic rays on extrasolar Earth-like planets I. Cosmic ray flux
(abridged abstract) Theoretical arguments indicate that close-in terrestial
exoplanets may have weak magnetic fields, especially in the case of planets
more massive than Earth (super-Earths). Planetary magnetic fields, however,
constitute one of the shielding layers that protect the planet against
cosmic-ray particles. In particular, a weak magnetic field results in a high
flux of Galactic cosmic rays that extends to the top of the planetary
atmosphere. We wish to quantify the flux of Galactic cosmic rays to an
exoplanetary atmosphere as a function of the particle energy and of the
planetary magnetic moment. We numerically analyzed the propagation of Galactic
cosmic-ray particles through planetary magnetospheres. We evaluated the
efficiency of magnetospheric shielding as a function of the particle energy (in
the range 16 MeV E 524 GeV) and as a function of the planetary
magnetic field strength (in the range 0 {M} 10
). Combined with the flux outside the planetary magnetosphere, this
gives the cosmic-ray energy spectrum at the top of the planetary atmosphere as
a function of the planetary magnetic moment. We find that the particle flux to
the planetary atmosphere can be increased by more than three orders of
magnitude in the absence of a protecting magnetic field. For a weakly
magnetized planet (), only particles with energies
below 512 MeV are at least partially shielded. For a planet with a magnetic
moment similar to Earth, this limit increases to 32 GeV, whereas for a strongly
magnetized planet (), partial shielding extends up to 200
GeV. We find that magnetic shielding strongly controls the number of cosmic-ray
particles reaching the planetary atmosphere. The implications of this increased
particle flux are discussed in a companion article.Comment: 10 pages, 9 figures; accepted in A&
Galactic cosmic rays on extrasolar Earth-like planets: II. Atmospheric implications
(abridged abstract) Theoretical arguments indicate that close-in terrestial
exoplanets may have weak magnetic fields. As described in the companion article
(Paper I), a weak magnetic field results in a high flux of galactic cosmic rays
to the top of the planetary atmosphere. We investigate effects that may result
from a high flux of galactic cosmic rays both throughout the atmosphere and at
the planetary surface. Using an air shower approach, we calculate how the
atmospheric chemistry and temperature change under the influence of galactic
cosmic rays for Earth-like (N_2-O_2 dominated) atmospheres. We evaluate the
production and destruction rate of atmospheric biosignature molecules. We
derive planetary emission and transmission spectra to study the influence of
galactic cosmic rays on biosignature detectability. We then calculate the
resulting surface UV flux, the surface particle flux, and the associated
equivalent biological dose rates. We find that up to 20% of stratospheric ozone
is destroyed by cosmic-ray protons. The reduction of the planetary ozone layer
leads to an increase in the weighted surface UV flux by two orders of magnitude
under stellar UV flare conditions. The resulting biological effective dose rate
is, however, too low to strongly affect surface life. We also examine the
surface particle flux: For a planet with a terrestrial atmosphere, a reduction
of the magnetic shielding efficiency can increase the biological radiation dose
rate by a factor of two. For a planet with a weaker atmosphere (with a surface
pressure of 97.8 hPa), the planetary magnetic field has a much stronger
influence on the biological radiation dose, changing it by up to two orders of
magnitude.Comment: 14 pages, 9 figures, published in A&
Views and experiences of men who have sex with men on the ban on blood donation: a cross sectional survey with qualitative interviews.
OBJECTIVE: To explore compliance with the UK blood services' criterion that excludes men who have had penetrative sex with a man from donating blood, and to assess the possible effects of revising this policy. DESIGN: A random location, cross sectional survey followed by qualitative interviews. SETTING: Britain. PARTICIPANTS: 1028 of 32,373 men in the general population reporting any male sexual contact completed the survey. Additional questions were asked of a general population sample (n=3914). Thirty men who had had penetrative sex with a man participated in the qualitative interviews (19 who had complied with the blood services' exclusion criterion and 11 who had not complied). Main outcome measure Compliance with the blood services' lifetime exclusion criterion for men who have had penetrative sex with a man. RESULTS: 10.6% of men with experience of penetrative sex with a man reported having donated blood in Britain while ineligible under the exclusion criterion, and 2.5% had donated in the previous 12 months. Ineligible donation was less common among men who had had penetrative sex with a man recently (in previous 12 months) than among men for whom this last occurred longer ago. Reasons for non-compliance with the exclusion included self categorisation as low risk, discounting the sexual experience that barred donation, belief in the infallibility of blood screening, concerns about confidentiality, and misunderstanding or perceived inequity of the rule. Although blood donation was rarely viewed as a "right," potential donors were seen as entitled to a considered assessment of risk. A one year deferral since last male penetrative sex was considered by study participants to be generally feasible, equitable, and acceptable. CONCLUSIONS: A minority of men who have sex with men who are ineligible to donate blood under the current donor exclusion in Britain have nevertheless done so in the past 12 months. Many of the reasons identified for non-compliance seem amenable to intervention. A clearly rationalised and communicated one year donor deferral is likely to be welcomed by most men who have sex with men
New Insights into Cosmic Ray induced Biosignature Chemistry in Earth-like Atmospheres
With the recent discoveries of terrestrial planets around active M-dwarfs,
destruction processes masking the possible presence of life are receiving
increased attention in the exoplanet community. We investigate potential
biosignatures of planets having Earth-like (N-O) atmospheres orbiting
in the habitable zone of the M-dwarf star AD Leo. These are bombarded by high
energetic particles which can create showers of secondary particles at the
surface. We apply our cloud-free 1D climate-chemistry model to study the
influence of key particle shower parameters and chemical efficiencies of NOx
and HOx production from cosmic rays. We determine the effect of stellar
radiation and cosmic rays upon atmospheric composition, temperature, and
spectral appearance. Despite strong stratospheric O destruction by cosmic
rays, smog O can significantly build up in the lower atmosphere of our
modeled planet around AD Leo related to low stellar UVB. NO abundances
decrease with increasing flaring energies but a sink reaction for NO with
excited oxygen becomes weaker, stabilizing its abundance. CH is removed
mainly by Cl in the upper atmosphere for strong flaring cases and not via
hydroxyl as is otherwise usually the case. Cosmic rays weaken the role of
CH in heating the middle atmosphere so that HO absorption becomes more
important. We additionally underline the importance of HNO as a possible
marker for strong stellar particle showers. In a nutshell, uncertainty in NOx
and HOx production from cosmic rays significantly influences biosignature
abundances and spectral appearance.Comment: Manuscript version after addressing all referee comments. Published
in Ap
The habitability of stagnant-lid Earths around dwarf stars
The habitability of a planet depends on various factors, such as delivery of
water during the formation, the co-evolution of the interior and the
atmosphere, as well as the stellar irradiation which changes in time. Since an
unknown number of rocky exoplanets may operate in a one-plate convective
regime, i.e., without plate tectonics, we aim at understanding under which
conditions planets in such a stagnant-lid regime may support habitable surface
conditions. Understanding the interaction of the planetary interior and
outgassing of volatiles with the atmosphere in combination with the evolution
of the host star is crucial to determine the potential habitability. M-dwarf
stars in particular possess a high-luminosity pre-main sequence phase which
endangers the habitability of planets around them via water loss. We therefore
explore the potential of secondary outgassing from the planetary interior to
rebuild a water reservoir allowing for habitability at a later stage. We
compute the boundaries of the habitable zone around M, K, G, and F-dwarf stars
using a 1D cloud-free radiative-convective climate model accounting for the
outgassing history of CO2 and H2O from an interior evolution and outgassing
model for different interior compositions and stellar luminosity evolutions.
The outer edge of the habitable zone strongly depends on the amount of CO2
outgassed from the interior, while the inner edge is mainly determined via the
stellar irradiation, as soon as a sufficiently large water reservoir has been
outgassed. A build-up of a secondary water reservoir for planets around M-dwarf
stars is possible even after severe water loss during the high luminosity
pre-main sequence phase as long as some water has been retained within the
mantle. Earth-like stagnant-lid planets allow for habitable surface conditions
within a continuous habitable zone that is dependent on interior composition.Comment: 15 pages, accepted by A&A, abstract shortene
Persistence in epidemic metapopulations: quantifying the rescue effects for measles, mumps, rubella and whooping cough
Metapopulation rescue effects are thought to be key to the persistence of many acute immunizing infections. Yet the enhancement of persistence through spatial coupling has not been previously quantified. Here we estimate the metapopulation rescue effects for four childhood infections using global WHO reported incidence data by comparing persistence on island countries vs all other countries, while controlling for key variables such as vaccine cover, birth rates and economic development. The relative risk of extinction on islands is significantly higher, and approximately double the risk of extinction in mainland countries. Furthermore, as may be expected, infections with longer infectious periods tend to have the strongest metapopulation rescue effects. Our results quantitate the notion that demography and local community size controls disease persistence
On the relativistic Doppler effect for precise velocity determination using GPS
The Doppler effect is the apparent shift in frequency of an electromagnetic signal that is received by an observer moving relative to the source of the signal. The Doppler frequency shift relates directly to the relative speed between the receiver and the transmitter, and has thus been widely used in velocity determination. A GPS receiver-satellite pair is in the Earth's gravity field and GPS signals travel at the speed of light, hence both Einstein's special and general relativity theories apply. This paper establishes the relationship between a Doppler shift and a user's ground velocity by taking both the special and general relativistic effects into consideration. A unified Doppler shift model is developed, which accommodates both the classical Doppler effect and the relativistic Doppler effect under special and general relativities. By identifying the relativistic correction terms in the model, a highly accurate GPS Doppler shift observation equation is presented. It is demonstrated that in the GPS "frequency" or "velocity" domain, the relativistic effect from satellite motion changes the receiver-satellite line-of-sight direction, and the measured Doppler shift has correction terms due to the relativistic effects of the receiver potential difference from the geoid, the orbit eccentricity, and the rotation of the Earth
Topographic determinants of foot and mouth disease transmission in the UK 2001 epidemic
Background
A key challenge for modelling infectious disease dynamics is to understand the spatial spread of infection in real landscapes. This ideally requires a parallel record of spatial epidemic spread and a detailed map of susceptible host density along with relevant transport links and geographical features.
Results
Here we analyse the most detailed such data to date arising from the UK 2001 foot and mouth epidemic. We show that Euclidean distance between infectious and susceptible premises is a better predictor of transmission risk than shortest and quickest routes via road, except where major geographical features intervene.
Conclusion
Thus, a simple spatial transmission kernel based on Euclidean distance suffices in most regions, probably reflecting the multiplicity of transmission routes during the epidemic
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