Baltic Sea Coastal Eutrophication in a Thousand Year Perspective

Sediment cores from three sites along the east-coast of Sweden, north-western Baltic Proper, have been studied with respect to lithologies, geochemistry and diatom assemblages to trace and date early human impact with emphasis on nutrient discharge. The three sites Bråviken, Himmerfjärden and Ådfjärden, have been impacted to various degree during the last millennia by multiple stressors like excessive nutrient discharge and hazardous substances, leading to coastal hypoxia, eutrophication and pollution. These stressors are mainly caused by drivers in the drainage area as increased human population, changed land use and point sources as industries and a sewage treatment plant. Even though their detailed history differs, the results show similar general patterns for all three sites. We find no evidence in our data from the coastal zone supporting the hypothesis that the extensive areal distribution of hypoxia in the open Baltic Sea during the Medieval Climate Anomaly was caused by human impact. Timing of the onset of man-made eutrophication, as identified from d15N and changes in diatom composition, differs between the three sites, reflecting the site specific geography and local environmental histories of these areas. The onset of eutrophication dates to 1800 CE in Bråviken and Himmerfjärden areas, and to 1900 CE in the less urban area of Ådfjärden. We conclude that the recorded environmental changes during the last centuries are unique in a thousand year perspective

Tracing environmental change and human impact as recorded in sediments from coastal areas of the northwestern Baltic Proper

The eutrophication of the Baltic Sea due to increased anthropogenic nutrient loads during the 20th century is well documented and studied. However, in the Baltic Sea drainage area, humans have affected the environment longer than the environmental monitoring can provide data for. Sediment records from lakes and seas can provide fundamental data on the environmental conditions before ecosystems were impacted by humans and give the range of natural variation. This thesis presents diatom and geochemistry stratigraphies from five sediment records along the southeast coast of Sweden, northwestern Baltic Proper. These records cover time periods of 500 years to more than 2,000 years. The diatom stratigraphies and geochemical proxies allow for reconstruction of environmental histories at these sites. Overall, the results show that the environmental changes that have occurred in the coastal zone in recent centuries are unprecedented over the last two millennia. The records from the coastal zone show only minor variations in the diatom stratigraphies and nitrogen stable isotope signals through history until recent centuries. The results show no evidence of increased runoff of nutrients from land during medieval times. Temperature anomalies since 500 CE have had little or no significant effect on the diatom assemblages from the coastal sites, while increased nutrient input from land has had a significant effect. Anthropogenic nutrient runoff has affected the diatom assemblages most markedly during the 20th century. The results show a time lag of the onset of eutrophication of approximately 100 years between the coast and open Baltic Sea, highlighting how the coastal zone acts as a buffer for the open Baltic Sea. The timing for the onset of eutrophication in these coastal areas is site-specific. For several sites, reference conditions prevailed more than 200 years ago. Water transparency at this time allowed for extensive distribution of benthic diatom habitats, such as macrophytes. The years of maximum nutrient load to the Baltic Sea during the 1970s–1980s is recorded in the diatom stratigraphies, especially with regard to the concentration of diatom valves in the sediments. There has been a recovery in diatom absolute abundance since maximum pollution years. However, there is no indication of a recovery in diatom species composition in the investigated coastal sites, and these sites are thus far from reaching a “good environmental status” according to the EU Water Framework Directive. The outcomes of this thesis highlight the importance of a longer time perspective than the environmental monitoring can provide.Övergödningen av Östersjön under 1900-talet är väldokumenterad och har bland annat resulterat i sämre siktdjup, att cyanobakterieblomningar har blivit mer omfattande och vanligare, utbredd syrebrist i bottenvatten, och en förändrad artsammansättning av många organismgrupper. Systematiskt provtagna mätdata från miljöövervakningen finns bara tillgänglig från 1960–70-talet och därmed vet vi väldigt lite om Östersjöns ekosystem före människans storskaliga påverkan. Sedimentkärnor från sjöar och hav fungerar som ett historiskt arkiv som under årtusenden lagrat information om dåtidens ekosystem. I denna avhandling används bevarade subfossila kiselalger och geokemi för att spåra miljöförändringar längs svenska sydostkusten de senaste tvåtusen åren. Resultat presenteras från fem sedimentkärnor från Östersjökusten, från Stockholms skärgård i norr till Gåsfjärden i söder, längs en sträcka på ca 250 km. Alla stratigrafier tyder på stabila förhållanden i dessa kustområden under yngre järnålder (500 före vår tideräkning – 1050 efter vår tideräkning (evt)) och medeltid (1050–1500 evt), fram till 1700-talet. Varken förändringar i klimat eller markanvändning har påverkat dessa kustområden i någon större utsträckning tills för några hundra år sedan. Det finns inga tecken på effekter av mänsklig aktivitet som exempelvis jordbruk fram till mer nutida förändringar. Alla undersökningsplatser har påverkats av övergödning under de senaste århundradena. Den exakta starten för ökad näringstillförsel skiljer sig något mellan platserna. De första tecknen på övergödning är från slutet av 1700-talet, och i början av 1800-talet är artsammansättningen av kiselalger redan förändrad. Storskaliga förändringar i markanvändning skedde under 1800-talet och fortsatte in på 1900-talet. Våtmarker och sjöar dikades ut, jordbruk med ängar och traditionell träda av jordbruksmark fasades ut till förmån för vallodling, till det kom konstgödsel i slutet av 1800-talet. Växande städer, industrier och reningsverk är punktkällor som i varierande grad har påverkat dessa kustområden. De första tecknen på övergödning syns ca 100 år tidigare vid kusten än i öppna Östersjön, vilket belyser kustzonens roll som näringsfilter. I öppna Östersjön har både klimatet och näringstillförsel från land påverkat artsammansättningen av kiselalger de senaste 2 000 åren. I kustområdet däremot har de direkta effekterna av klimatet spelat en mindre roll, och artsammansättningen av kiselalger har främst varit påverkad av näringstillförsel från land. Övergödningen har resulterat i ökad pelagisk primärproduktion och därmed lägre siktdjup, vilket har begränsat utbredningen av bottenlevande arter. I Östersjön finns inga opåverkade områden kvar, och därmed inga referensområden för att definiera referensvärden enligt EUs vattendirektiv. Resultaten som presenteras i denna avhandling visar att i flera av de undersökta kustområdena rådde ett miljötillstånd opåverkat av mänsklig aktivitet för mer än 200 år sedan. Maximal tillförsel av näring till Östersjön skedde under 1960–70-talet, vilket avspeglar sig i koncentrationen av kiselalger i sedimenten, något som kan användas som en proxy för primärproduktion. Lägre koncentrationer av kiselalger i sedimenten de senaste årtiondena indikerar en bättre vattenkvalité. Däremot syns ännu ingen förbättring i artsammansättning av kiselalger som indikerar en tillbakagång till referensvärden. Inte heller syns tecken på någon förbättring vad gäller siktdjup i undersökningsområdena

Epilithic and aerophilic diatoms in the artificial environment of Kungsträdgården metro station, Stockholm, Sweden

The Kungsträdgården metro station is an artificial and urban subsurface environment illuminated with artificial light. Its ecosystem is almost completely unknown and as a first step to better understand the biology and rock wall habitats the diatom flora was investigated. A total of 12 species were found growing on the rock walls of Kungsträdgården metro station. The results show the diatom flora in Kungsträdgården to be dominated by e.g. Diadesmis contenta, Diadesmis perpusilla, Pinnularia appendiculata, Nitzschia amphibia, Nitzschia sinuata and Diploneis ovalis. One species, Caloneis cf. aerophila, has never been reported from Sweden before. Significant differences in the species composition between the sampling sites indicate Kungsträdgården metro station to be a heterogeneous habitat that provides different microhabitats

Epilithic and aerophilic diatoms in the artificial environment of Kungsträdgården metro station, Stockholm, Sweden

The Kungsträdgården metro station is an artificial and urban subsurface environment illuminated with artificial light. Its ecosystem is almost completely unknown and as a first step to better understand the biology and rock wall habitats the diatom flora was investigated. A total of 12 species were found growing on the rock walls of Kungsträdgården metro station. The results show the diatom flora in Kungsträdgården to be dominated by e.g. Diadesmis contenta, Diadesmis perpusilla, Pinnularia appendiculata, Nitzschia amphibia, Nitzschia sinuata and Diploneis ovalis. One species, Caloneis cf. aerophila, has never been reported from Sweden before. Significant differences in the species composition between the sampling sites indicate Kungsträdgården metro station to be a heterogeneous habitat that provides different microhabitats

Medieval versus recent environmental conditions in the Baltic Proper, what was different a thousand years ago?

A sediment record from the western Gotland Basin, northwestern Baltic Proper, covering the last 1200 years, was investigated for past changes in climate and the environment using diatoms as a proxy. The aim is to compare the environmental conditions reconstructed during Medieval times with settings occurring the last century under influence of environmental stressors like eutrophication and climate change. The study core records more marine conditions in the western Gotland Basin surface waters during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA; 950–1250C.E.), with a salinity of at least 8 psu compared to the present 6.5 psu. The higher salinity together with a strong summer-autumn stratification caused by warmer climate resulted in extensive long-lasting diatom blooms of Pseudosolenia calcar-avis, effectively enhancing the vertical export of organic carbon to the sediment and contributing to benthic hypoxia. Accordingly, our data support that a warm and dry climate induced the extensive hypoxic areas in the open Baltic Sea during the MCA. During the Little ice Age (LIA; 1400–1700C.E.), the study core records oxic bottom water conditions, decreasing salinity and less primary production. This was succeeded during the 20th century, about 1940, by environmental changes caused by human-induced eutrophication. Impact of climate change is visible in the diatom composition data starting about 1975C.E. and becoming more pronounced 2000C.E., visible as an increase of taxa that thrived in stratified waters during autumn blooms typically due to climate warming

Electron micro-probe data.

<p>Overview of compositional differences between the different secondary mineral formations in comparison with that of fresh glass. The squares represent analyses of the simple filament type with BSE-bright Mn-rich interior strands. The triangles represent the filaments with more complex zoning, including Fe-rich outer parts.</p

Microphotographs of fragmented marine organisms and hyphae forming haustoria.

<p>(A) Marine sediments with remains of a likely diatom with a visible raphe across the center. (B) Remains of diatoms in marine sediments. The left diatom is overgrown by fungi and irregular organic matter, but structures resembling areolaes are visible through the organic cover. (C) Remains of a raphe and unidentified fragmented marine organism in marine sediments. (D) An unidentified fragmented marine organism surrounded by hyphae that form protruding haustorium penetrating the fragment. Haustorium is seen with the fragment as well. (E) A hyphae that forms a mycelial haustorium in association with the remains of a fragmented marine organism. For legends see caption of <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0133368#pone.0133368.g002" target="_blank">Fig 2</a>.</p

Map of Vesteris seamount.

<p>(A) Map of the northwestern part of the Atlantic showing the location of Vesteris Seamount in the Greenland Basin. Image reproduced from the GEBCO world map 2014, <a href="http://www.gebco.net/" target="_blank">www.gebco.net</a>. (B) Bathymetric map of Vesteris Seamount processed using combined multibeam data from RV Polarstern expeditions ARK II/4, ARK VII/1, ARKXVIII/1, and ARK XIX/4. The location from which the samples examined in this study were taken is marked by a black square.</p