Epidermal chloroplasts are defense-related motile organelles equipped with plant immune components

植物の表皮細胞に存在する機能未知の小さな葉緑体の存在意義を解明 --表皮葉緑体は免疫因子を搭載して細胞内を移動し病原菌の侵入阻止に関与する--. 京都大学プレスリリース. 2021-05-21.In addition to conspicuous large mesophyll chloroplasts, where most photosynthesis occurs, small epidermal chloroplasts have also been observed in plant leaves. However, the functional significance of this small organelle remains unclear. Here, we present evidence that Arabidopsis epidermal chloroplasts control the entry of fungal pathogens. In entry trials, specialized fungal cells called appressoria triggered dynamic movement of epidermal chloroplasts. This movement is controlled by common regulators of mesophyll chloroplast photorelocation movement, designated as the epidermal chloroplast response (ECR). The ECR occurs when the PEN2 myrosinase-related higher-layer antifungal system becomes ineffective, and blockage of the distinct steps of the ECR commonly decreases preinvasive nonhost resistance against fungi. Furthermore, immune components were preferentially localized to epidermal chloroplasts, contributing to antifungal nonhost resistance in the pen2 background. Our findings reveal that atypical small chloroplasts act as defense-related motile organelles by specifically positioning immune components in the plant epidermis, which is the first site of contact between the plant and pathogens. Thus, this work deepens our understanding of the functions of epidermal chloroplasts

Phototactic and Chemotactic Signal Transduction by Transmembrane Receptors and Transducers in Microorganisms

Microorganisms show attractant and repellent responses to survive in the various environments in which they live. Those phototaxic (to light) and chemotaxic (to chemicals) responses are regulated by membrane-embedded receptors and transducers. This article reviews the following: (1) the signal relay mechanisms by two photoreceptors, Sensory Rhodopsin I (SRI) and Sensory Rhodopsin II (SRII) and their transducers (HtrI and HtrII) responsible for phototaxis in microorganisms; and (2) the signal relay mechanism of a chemoreceptor/transducer protein, Tar, responsible for chemotaxis in E. coli. Based on results mainly obtained by our group together with other findings, the possible molecular mechanisms for phototaxis and chemotaxis are discussed

Conserved fungal effector suppresses PAMP-triggered immunity by targeting plant immune kinases

Plant pathogens have optimized their own effector sets to adapt to their hosts. However, certain effectors, regarded as core effectors, are conserved among various pathogens, and may therefore play an important and common role in pathogen virulence. We report here that the widely distributed fungal effector NIS1 targets host immune components that transmit signaling from pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in plants. NIS1 from two Colletotrichum spp. suppressed the hypersensitive response and oxidative burst, both of which are induced by pathogen-derived molecules, in Nicotiana benthamiana. Magnaporthe oryzae NIS1 also suppressed the two defense responses, although this pathogen likely acquired the NIS1 gene via horizontal transfer from Basidiomycota. Interestingly, the root endophyte Colletotrichum tofieldiae also possesses a NIS1 homolog that can suppress the oxidative burst in N. benthamiana. We show that NIS1 of multiple pathogens commonly interacts with the PRR-associated kinases BAK1 and BIK1, thereby inhibiting their kinase activities and the BIK1-NADPH oxidase interaction. Furthermore, mutations in the NIS1-targeting proteins, i.e., BAK1 and BIK1, in Arabidopsis thaliana also resulted in reduced immunity to Colletotrichum fungi. Finally, M. oryzae lacking NIS1 displayed significantly reduced virulence on rice and barley, its hosts. Our study therefore reveals that a broad range of filamentous fungi maintain and utilize the core effector NIS1 to establish infection in their host plants and perhaps also beneficial interactions, by targeting conserved and central PRR-associated kinases that are also known to be targeted by bacterial effectors

Large-Scale Gene Disruption in Magnaporthe oryzae Identifies MC69, a Secreted Protein Required for Infection by Monocot and Dicot Fungal Pathogens

To search for virulence effector genes of the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe oryzae, we carried out a large-scale targeted disruption of genes for 78 putative secreted proteins that are expressed during the early stages of infection of M. oryzae. Disruption of the majority of genes did not affect growth, conidiation, or pathogenicity of M. oryzae. One exception was the gene MC69. The mc69 mutant showed a severe reduction in blast symptoms on rice and barley, indicating the importance of MC69 for pathogenicity of M. oryzae. The mc69 mutant did not exhibit changes in saprophytic growth and conidiation. Microscopic analysis of infection behavior in the mc69 mutant revealed that MC69 is dispensable for appressorium formation. However, mc69 mutant failed to develop invasive hyphae after appressorium formation in rice leaf sheath, indicating a critical role of MC69 in interaction with host plants. MC69 encodes a hypothetical 54 amino acids protein with a signal peptide. Live-cell imaging suggested that fluorescently labeled MC69 was not translocated into rice cytoplasm. Site-directed mutagenesis of two conserved cysteine residues (Cys36 and Cys46) in the mature MC69 impaired function of MC69 without affecting its secretion, suggesting the importance of the disulfide bond in MC69 pathogenicity function. Furthermore, deletion of the MC69 orthologous gene reduced pathogenicity of the cucumber anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum orbiculare on both cucumber and Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. We conclude that MC69 is a secreted pathogenicity protein commonly required for infection of two different plant pathogenic fungi, M. oryzae and C. orbiculare pathogenic on monocot and dicot plants, respectively

Emerging Roles of Motile Epidermal Chloroplasts in Plant Immunity

Plant epidermis contains atypical small chloroplasts. However, the physiological role of this organelle is unclear compared to that of large mesophyll chloroplasts, the well-known function of which is photosynthesis. Although knowledge of the involvement of chloroplasts in the plant immunity has been expanded to date, the differences between the epidermal and mesophyll chloroplasts are beyond the scope of this study. Given the role of the plant epidermis as a barrier to environmental stresses, including pathogen attacks, and the immune-related function of chloroplasts, plant defense research on epidermal chloroplasts is an emerging field. Recent studies have revealed the dynamic movements of epidermal chloroplasts in response to fungal and oomycete pathogens. Furthermore, epidermal chloroplast-associated proteins and cellular events that are tightly linked to epidermal resistance against pathogens have been reported. In this review, I have focused on the recent progress in epidermal chloroplast-mediated plant immunity

Preinvasive nonhost resistance of Arabidopsis against melanized appressorium-mediated entry of multiple nonadapted Colletotrichum fungi

Nonhost plants effectively block a vast number of nonadapted fungal pathogens at the preinvasive stage. On the host plants, adapted fungal pathogens such as Colletotrichum species invade into plant epidermal cell by penetration peg developed from melanized appressorium, followed by invasive hyphal extension. I reported nonadapted Colletotrichum fungi that showed an increased rate of melanized appressorium-mediated entry (MAE) into the pen2 mutant of nonhost Arabidopsis thaliana (hereafter Arabidopsis). It was also found that other MAE-type nonadapted Colletotrichum fungi with no penetration into the pen2 mutant invaded Arabidopsis in the presence of additional mutations such as edr1, gsh1, eds5, cas, and chup1 in the pen2 background. Thus, many immune components contribute to the preinvasive nonhost resistance (NHR) of Arabidopsis against Colletotrichum MAE, and PEN2-related defense takes priority over other defense pathways. Here, I show that among the above nonadapted fungi, Colletotrichum nymphaeae PL1-1-b exhibited relatively lower incompatibility with the nonhost Arabidopsis with increased MAE in each single mutant of edr1, gsh1, eds5, and cas, although other nonadapted fungi almost never invaded these single mutants. Based on the relationships between Colletotrichum MAE and the Arabidopsis immune-related components, Colletotrichum-Arabidopsis incompatibility and multilayered immunity in the preinvasive NHR of Arabidopsis are discussed in this study

Balkan jeopolitiği ve Çamıria sorunu

This study analyzes historical facts from the end of the Ottoman Empire until nowadays and shows the consequences that geopolitical games had upon the Balkan Peninsula. Within this study firstly it is presented the history and principles of both classical and critical Geopolitics, including a detailed explanation of the geopolitical position of Balkans and the Chameria Region. Additionally, the whole historical prospectus of the Balkans in general and Chameria Question, in particular, has been explained according to classical geopolitical strategies. It is the first time that the Chameria Question is seen under the geopolitical perspective. The main query reveals the importance of this small land for both countries Albania and Greece as well as the direct interests that different actors such as Great Britain, the United States of America and Russia have for the region. To achieve this, sources from different languages such as Albanian, French, English, Turkish, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese have been used. In sequence, based on the hypothesis of this study, it is observed that these geopolitical strategies are present and continue to lie underneath an elusive peace even in this century. These strategies after the 1990s made possible the change of state borders thus changed once again the balance of powers in the region. Yet for Chameria there is still no official solution that would appease the situation and satisfy both countries.Bu çalışma, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun son döneminden günümüze kadar olan tarihi olayları analiz etmekte ve jeopolitik oyunların Balkan Yarımadası üzerindeki sonuçlarını göstermektedir. Bu çalışmada öncelikle, Balkanlar ve Çamıria Bölgesi'nin jeopolitik konumunun ayrıntılı bir açıklaması da dahil olmak üzere hem klasik hem de kritik Jeopolitik'in tarihçesi ve ilkeleri sunulmuştur. Buna ek olarak, genel anlamda Balkanlar'ın tüm tarihi tarifi ve özel anlamda Çamıria Sorunu klasik jeopolitik stratejilere göre açıklanmıştır. Çamıria Sorunu jeopolitik bakış açısıdan ilk kez bu çalışmada incelemiştir. Ana sorgu olarak bu küçük toprağın hem Arnavutluk hem de Yunanistan ülkeleri için öneminin yanı sıra Büyük Britanya, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve Rusya gibi farklı aktörlerin bölge için sahip oldukları doğrudan çıkarları ortaya koyulmuştur. Bunu başarmak için Arnavutça, Fransızca, İngilizce, İspanyolca, İtalyanca, Portekizce ve Türkçe gibi farklı dillerden kaynaklar kullanılmıştır. Sırasıyla, bu çalışmanın hipotezine dayanarak, bu jeopolitik stratejilerin mevcut olduğu ve bu yüzyılda bile zor bir barışın altında kalmaya devam ettiği görülmektedir. 1990'dan sonraki bu stratejiler, devlet sınırlarının değişmesini mümkün kılarak bölge güçlerinin dengesini bir kez daha değiştirmiştir. Yine de Çamıria için durumu yatıştıracak ve her iki ülkeyi tatmin edecek resmi bir çözüm bulunmamaktadır

Author Correction: ARC6-mediated Z ring-like structure formation of prokaryote-descended chloroplast FtsZ in Escherichia coli

A correction to this article has been published and is linked from the HTML and PDF versions of this paper. T he error has not been fixed in the paper

Analysing from a Systematic Perspective the Albanian Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire

The Balkan Peninsula was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for six centuries. This long Ottoman presence and co-existence directly influenced the Balkan peoples in several respects: politics, military, religion, economy, culture, social, demography, art, architecture, state tradition, state institutions and so on. Considering the multiethnic and multireligious structure of the region, the Ottoman Empire was forced to use various regulatory means to have a peaceful and prosperous region. Thus, the Ottoman Empire implemented systems and policies in the Balkans such as “İstimâlet” (tolerance and protection), “Millet”, “Devshirmeh”, “Jizya”, “Çift-Hane”, “Timar”, “Vilayet”, “İskan”. The effect of these policies on the population of the region has been examined on a systematical basis. These types of policies also had an impact on the subsequent development of nationalism in the Balkans. Nationalism in the Balkans began in the early 19th century with the Greek and Serbian uprisings; these uprisings were largely armed, and later spread to other Balkan peoples. In all these developments, Albanian nationalism makes a difference. It is a fact that the rule of the Ottoman Empire has shaped the Albanian nationalism as it has done with all Balkan nationalism. However, the Albanian nationalism was developed under the conditions that the Ottoman Empire established in the region, videlicet on the policies it applied. The nature of the Albanian nationalism differs from the other regional ones in that it is not an aggressive movement and that it developed more on the basis of a cultural awakening. The investigation of the steps that resulted in this variation holds a particular significance For a real understanding of all the mentioned changes one has to know the systems and policies that are to be explained in this study