Levels and causes of household food and nutrition insecurity in dryland Kenya

Ensuring food and nutrition security in the drylands of sub-Saharan Africa is a critical challenge. Often, information on the level of insecurity is either scanty or unavailable. This paper looks at food and nutrition access at the household level and its determinants in two cases in one of the sub-Saharan African countries: Kenya. Data were collected from a repeat-visit survey of 50 households in two areas of Makueni District, located in the southern part of the country, during 1994–1996, a period that included ‘normal’ and drought seasons. Even in a season of normal rains, 32 to 42 per cent of households were food insecure, percentages that rose to 40 and 52 during drought. The annual incidence of food poverty was higher (46%) in the drier area than in the wetter area (36%). Food distribution among households, however, showed a reverse trend with the drier area having a Gini coefficient of 0.32 compared to 0.34 in the wetter area. Regressions were used to examine the causes of food and nutrition insecurity. Amongst the main factors improving food and nutrition security was earnings from off the farm. Households headed by women were more food secure than those headed by men, all other things being equal. These findings provide support for prioritising entitlements in terms of earnings and food prices in policy-making, rather than focusing on food production alone. They also indicate that there may be higher social returns to addressing issues of livelihoods associated with women rather than me

Processing variations, nutritional and sensory quality of ethnic deep-fried meats from Kenyan pastoral communities

Deep-frying of meats has been done by indigenous pastoral communities from time immemorial for the unique taste, flavor, and exceptional shelf- stability. Traditional pastoral deep-fried meats have great potential as snacks in the global food basket due to their unique nutritional qualities and high satiety. Lost and weakening cultural ties have led to disparities in the deep-frying processing hurdles within and between different  communities. The goal of this research was to study the peculiarities and uncover processing variations of ethnic deep-fried meats from indigenous people of the pastoral semi-arid lands and to explore how this translates to nutritional and sensory attributes of selected products from Kenya. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Turkana, Kajiado, and Marsabit counties with data collected using Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). From each focus group, samples of the deep-fried meats were analyzed for nutritional and sensory characteristics using standard methods. Notable  variations in the deep-frying process observed were the size of chunks, pre-drying techniques prior to deep-frying, and choice of deep-frying media. Shelf stability was achieved by oilencapsulating the chunks in solidified deep-frying media, fumigation of traditional packaging containers with smoke, and the use of spices. Variations on proximate contents were observed with moisture ranging between 8.1% and 28.5%, protein between 42.6% and 46.9%, lipids between 15.4% and 37.9%, ash between 3.1% and 4.3%, and energy between 424 Kcal/100g and 542 Kcal/100g. Differences in processing hurdles and storage contributed to variations in sensory attributes with pre-drying, smoking, and choice of deep-frying media contributing to the greatest variabilities. This notwithstanding, the study revealed a limitation on use of semi-trained panelists to bring out deep-cultural rooted ties that play a big role in the sensory acceptability of these indigenous products calling for caution before the interpretation of sensory data. In conclusion, variations in size of chunks, pre-drying technique, choice of deep-frying media, oil-encapsulation, and smoking among ethnic communities during the deepfrying process significantly contribute to differences in nutritional and sensory characteristics of deep-fried products. Key words: pastoral meat, ethnic meat, indigenous, deep-fried meat, nutrition quality, sensory qualit

Reduction Of Nitrates, Oxalates And Phenols In Fermented Solar-Dried Stored Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata L.) Leaf Vegetables

This study was conducted to determine the effect of fermentation, solar drying and storage duration on the levels of anti-nutrients: nitrates, oxalates and phenols, in cowpea leaf vegetables. The rationale was reduction of the anti-nutrients. Reduction of nutritional stress factors in plant foods increases bioavailability of nutrients, hence improving their quality as foodstuffs. The cowpea leaves were purchased from the local markets, sorted to remove blemished leaves and foreign materials, washed in running tap water. Then, the vegetables were drained and divided into three batches of 16 kg each. One batch was heat-treated in hot water for 3 minutes and then cooled to ambient temperatures, drained and solar-dried. The second portion was acidified to a pH of 3.8, heat-treated, and solar-dried. The third portion was fermented for 21 days, heat-treated, and solar-dried. The three batches of vegetables were spread at different times on drying trays at the rate of 4 kg/m2 and dried in a solar drier to an approximate moisture content of 10%. The dried vegetables were packaged in either polyethylene bags or Kraft paper bags and stored for three months at 18°C, 22°- 26°C or 32°C. Fermentation, heat-treatment and drying of vegetables led to significant (P < 0.05) reduction in nitrates compared to fresh cowpea leaves, but the reduction in oxalates and phenols was not significant. Storage for three months led to significant (P < 0.05) reduction in nitrates in the fermented sample compared to the other samples. The acidified sample had significantly (P < 0.05) higher levels of phenols after three months of storage than the other samples. Samples stored at 18oC had higher levels of oxalates and phenols but lower levels of nitrates, compared to those stored at higher temperatures. Packaging material had no significant effect on the level of nitrates, oxalates and phenols. Data obtained in this study reveal a novel technique for the reduction of anti-nutrients in cowpea leaf vegetables, namely; fermentation followed by solar drying. The increased acceptability of these fermented-dried vegetables would help rural communities in providing better foodstuff with fewer anti-nutrients, thus alleviating micronutrient malnutrition. This novel long-term storage technology can greatly help to deal with the issue of seasonality and will increase food security, especially during the dry season

Microbiological And Acidity Changes During The Traditional Production Of Kirario: An Indigenous Kenyan Fermented Porridge Produced From Green Maize And Millet

Using a previously pre-tested structured questionnaire, the traditional processing method for kirario (a traditional fermented porridge of the Merus in Kenya) was studied and documented. The biochemical and microbial profile changes during fermentation of kirario, both by the traditional method and in the laboratorywere monitored for 48 hours. Samples of kirario from ten localities in the study region were analyzed. Samples of the final products from the traditional method were analyzed for total viable counts (TVC), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), lactococci, yeasts and moulds and coliforms, while the laboratory samples were taken at six (6)-hour intervals and analyzed for TVC, LAB, lactococci, and yeasts and moulds for 48 hours. The traditional product showed average TVC, LAB, lactococci, yeasts and moulds of 9.30, 9.63, 8.62, and 4.83 log10 cfu/ml, respectively. Coliform counts were detected in only two of the samples at <1 log10 cfu/ml. Analysis of the laboratory samples showed similar results. This showed that the production of kirario was reproducible and could be simulated in an industrial set-up for commercialization. In both the laboratory and traditional samples, the microbial counts were monitored at 6 hourly intervals for 48 hours. The initial pH of 6.4 dropped to 3.3 at the end of the fermentation, while the total titratable acidity increased to 3.15% from an initial value of 1.04%. The TVC, LAB, lactococci, yeasts and molds increased from initial counts of 8.20, 8.18, 7.20 and 5.86 log10 cfu/ml to 9.64, 9.55, 5.38 and 0.70 log10 cfu/ml, respectively at the end of the 48-hour fermentation. The coliform counts were low or not detected at all in majority of the samples. These results indicated high degree of hygiene in traditional processing of kirario as indicated by the very low or undetectable coliforms. This was also attributed to the effect of inhibition of growth of coliforms during fermentation. The results were also substantiated by unusually high levels of acid in both the traditional and laboratory products, corresponding to pH 3.0 to 3.5, which indicated high activity of the lactic acid bacteria in kirario

DIETARY PATTERNS AND DENTAL CARIES IN NURSERY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN NAIROBI, KENYA

Objective: To determine the dietary patterns and the prevalence of dental caries amongnursery school children in Nairobi.Design: A cross-sectional study.Setting: Nursery schools in Nairobi, Kenya.Subjects: Three hundred and four nursery school-children ( 149 males and 155 females) aged3-5 years were assessed in 1997.Results: There was a high consumption of fruits. vegetables and milk on a daily basis. Therewasalsoa high consumption of snacks both at home and atsvhool. About 96% of the childrenhad been breastfed, while 41 % had been bottle-fed. The pre valence of dental caries was highat 63.5% and a mean decayed, missing and filled teeth ir dex (dmft) of 2.95, with the dcomponentcomprising 96% of the total dmft. Only 1.3% of the children had filled teeth.Increasing age was the most predictive factor in dental caries.Conclusion: The high consumption of refined foods and snac ks, as well as the high prevalenceof dental caries raises a strong public health concern. I1 is recommended that dietarycounselling and preventive oral health programmes shou d be initiated and the alreadyexisting ones strengthened and incorporated in primary healthcare programmes. There isalso need for policy makers to come up with guidelines on advertisements promotingcariogenic snacks

The physico-chemical characteristics and some nutritional values of vegetable amaranth sold in Nairobi, Kenya

Twenty one major supermarkets and ten independent green grocers in the city of Nairobi were surveyed for types of vegetable amaranths sold and their post harvest handling. The nutrient composition of the vegetables was also analyzed. In addition, information on three other traditional leafy vegetables (TLVs) namely, Cleome gynandra, Solanum nigrum, and Vigna unguiculata was obtained. All the vegetables were sold in bundles of average weight 0.45 kg. The edible fraction per bundle averaged 38.9%. Chemical analyses showed that vegetable amaranth had a moisture content of 85.5%, therefore a dry matter content of 14.5%. Expressed on dry matter basis, the mean total ash content was 19.2%, crude protein content 26.1% and the crude fiber content 14.7%. The mean ascorbic acid content was 627 mg/100 g, zinc content 5.5m g/100 g and iron content 18 mg/100 g. The men nitrate content was 732.5 mg/100 g, total oxalates 5830 mg/100 g and soluble oxalates 3650 mg/100 g, while the lead content averaged 1.03 mg/100 g. The study concludes that vegetable amaranth has potential as popular vegetable in the diets of Kenyans to significantly contribute to provision of micronutrients, particularly iron and zinc

Influence of maturity at harvest, N fertiliser and postharvest storage on dry matter, ascorbic acid and B-carotene contents of vegetable amaranth

Vegetable amaranth is a leafy vegetable traditionally grown in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia where it is the most consumed traditional vegetable. It is considered to have high nutritional quality, containing relatively large amounts of vitamins A and C. We have assessed the influence of the maturity of the vegetable and soil nutrition on the visual and nutritional quality of amaranth. We found that leaf ascorbic acid content is strongly influenced by both maturity and soil nutrition, with leaves of seven week old matured plants having the highest content. ß-carotene increased with increasing amount of soil nitrogen and with increasing plant age. The loss of both visual and nutritional quality during storage was influenced more by maturity at harvest and the temperature of storage than the soil nutrition

Influence of organic and mineral fertilization on germination, leaf nitrogen, nitrate accumulation and yield of vegetable amaranth

The influence of manure and diammonium phosphate (DAP) mineral fertilizer on germination, leaf nitrogen content, nitrate accumulation and yield of vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) was investigated. Field trials were set up at the University of Nairobi Field Station at the Upper Kabete Campus during the long rains of March–May in 2007 and 2008. Trials were laid out as complete randomized block design with four fertilization treatments: 20, 40, and 60 kg nitrogen (N) ha-1 supplied by DAP (18:46:0), 40 kg N ha-1 supplied by cattle manure and an unfertilized control variant. The vegetables were harvested at three maturity stages at 6, 7, and 8 weeks after planting. Results indicated that there were significant differences between treatments in germination percentage, leaf nitrogen content, nitrate accumulation and vegetable yield. Plants that received manure had a higher germination percentage than those that received the same amount of N supplied by the chemical fertilizer DAP. The yields generally increased from week 6 to week 8. The highest yield was recorded in plots receiving 40 kg N ha-1 from DAP at eight weeks after planting. Plots that were supplied with manure recorded the lowest yield when compared to the fertilizer treated plots at all rates. Leaf nitrogen content increased with increasing rate of N but only when N was supplied by DAP fertilizer. The leaf nitrogen content decreased with increasing age of the plants. The leaf nitrate content increased with increase in DAP application rate. Results indicate that manure application produced quality vegetables in terms of low nitrate levels, but leaf nitrogen and vegetable yields were low. DAP application effected higher yields, but the vegetables had high though acceptable nitrate level

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in raw milk traded in peri-urban Nairobi, and the effect of boiling and fermentation

Background: Dairy production in Kenya is important and dominated by small-holder farmers who market their produce through small-scale traders in the informal sector. Method: This study aimed to determine the prevalence of aflatoxin (AFM1) in informally marketed milk in peri-urban Nairobi, Kenya, and to assess knowledge of milk traders on aflatoxins using questionnaires. A total of 96 samples were analyzed for AFM1 using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, boiling and fermentation experiments were carried out in the laboratory. Results: All samples had AFM1 above the limit of detection (5 ng/kg) (mean of 290.3 ± 663.4 ng/kg). Two-thirds of the samples had AFM1 levels above 50 ng/kg and 7.5% of the samples exceeded 500 ng/kg. Most of the traders had low (69.8%) or medium (30.2%) knowledge. Educated (p = 0.01) and female traders (p= 0.04) were more knowledgeable. Experimentally, fermenting milk to lala (a traditional fermented drink) and yogurt significantly reduced AFM1 levels (p< 0.01) (71.8% reduction in lala after incubation at room temperature for 15 h, and 73.6% reduction in yogurt after incubation at 45ºC for 4h). Boiling had no effect. Conclusion: The study concluded that the prevalence of raw milk with AFM1 was high, while knowledge was low. Fermentation reduced the AFM1 levels