Levels and causes of household food and nutrition insecurity in dryland Kenya

Ensuring food and nutrition security in the drylands of sub-Saharan Africa is a critical challenge. Often, information on the level of insecurity is either scanty or unavailable. This paper looks at food and nutrition access at the household level and its determinants in two cases in one of the sub-Saharan African countries: Kenya. Data were collected from a repeat-visit survey of 50 households in two areas of Makueni District, located in the southern part of the country, during 1994–1996, a period that included ‘normal’ and drought seasons. Even in a season of normal rains, 32 to 42 per cent of households were food insecure, percentages that rose to 40 and 52 during drought. The annual incidence of food poverty was higher (46%) in the drier area than in the wetter area (36%). Food distribution among households, however, showed a reverse trend with the drier area having a Gini coefficient of 0.32 compared to 0.34 in the wetter area. Regressions were used to examine the causes of food and nutrition insecurity. Amongst the main factors improving food and nutrition security was earnings from off the farm. Households headed by women were more food secure than those headed by men, all other things being equal. These findings provide support for prioritising entitlements in terms of earnings and food prices in policy-making, rather than focusing on food production alone. They also indicate that there may be higher social returns to addressing issues of livelihoods associated with women rather than me

How Clear is Your Lens? A Discussion About Diversity and Strategies for Inclusion Both In and Beyond the Classroom

We come to GVSU with our individual perspectives on life and learning based on our home environment, our journey and all the things that make us who we are. The same is true for our students. How do we create an environment of inclusion given our diversity, our biases and our lens, our world view? This workshop examines ways of creating an inclusive instructional environment and techniques for helping students enhance their skills in creating an inclusive workplace on graduation

Processing variations, nutritional and sensory quality of ethnic deep-fried meats from Kenyan pastoral communities

Deep-frying of meats has been done by indigenous pastoral communities from time immemorial for the unique taste, flavor, and exceptional shelf- stability. Traditional pastoral deep-fried meats have great potential as snacks in the global food basket due to their unique nutritional qualities and high satiety. Lost and weakening cultural ties have led to disparities in the deep-frying processing hurdles within and between different  communities. The goal of this research was to study the peculiarities and uncover processing variations of ethnic deep-fried meats from indigenous people of the pastoral semi-arid lands and to explore how this translates to nutritional and sensory attributes of selected products from Kenya. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Turkana, Kajiado, and Marsabit counties with data collected using Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). From each focus group, samples of the deep-fried meats were analyzed for nutritional and sensory characteristics using standard methods. Notable  variations in the deep-frying process observed were the size of chunks, pre-drying techniques prior to deep-frying, and choice of deep-frying media. Shelf stability was achieved by oilencapsulating the chunks in solidified deep-frying media, fumigation of traditional packaging containers with smoke, and the use of spices. Variations on proximate contents were observed with moisture ranging between 8.1% and 28.5%, protein between 42.6% and 46.9%, lipids between 15.4% and 37.9%, ash between 3.1% and 4.3%, and energy between 424 Kcal/100g and 542 Kcal/100g. Differences in processing hurdles and storage contributed to variations in sensory attributes with pre-drying, smoking, and choice of deep-frying media contributing to the greatest variabilities. This notwithstanding, the study revealed a limitation on use of semi-trained panelists to bring out deep-cultural rooted ties that play a big role in the sensory acceptability of these indigenous products calling for caution before the interpretation of sensory data. In conclusion, variations in size of chunks, pre-drying technique, choice of deep-frying media, oil-encapsulation, and smoking among ethnic communities during the deepfrying process significantly contribute to differences in nutritional and sensory characteristics of deep-fried products. Key words: pastoral meat, ethnic meat, indigenous, deep-fried meat, nutrition quality, sensory qualit

Physico-chemical Characteristics of Refined Lake Victoria Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) Viscera Oil

Nile perch viscera oil was characterized in terms of its physico-chemical properties. The crude oil was refined by neutralization, deodorization and winterization to obtain low melting point (LMP) and the high melting point (HMP) fractions. The oil fractions were analyzed for omega – 3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid – EPA and docosahexaenoic – DHA), vitamin A, vitamin E, iodine value (IV), saponification value (SV), density, melting point (MP), and smoke point (SP). Crude was used as control. Data were analysed (p £ 0.05) using GenStat software. The yield of winterized oil (LMP) was 39.8 ± 0.5% of crude and 19.6 ± 0.5% of raw material weight. There were no significant differences in density and vitamin E (tocopherol) content of the three fractions, while there were significant differences in the slip MP, SP, SV, IV and vitamin A (retinol) content. There were also significant differences in EPA and DHA contents. EPA and DHA for the LMP were highest, followed by crude and HMP having lowest. High vitamins A and E as well as omega – 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω – 3 PUFA) contents and high SP make the crude and HMP fractions suitable for use in cooking. The high amount of LMP fraction has high content of ω – 3 PUFA, making it suitable for use in food, feed and nutraceutics. Keywords: Nile perch; viscera; wet rendering; refining; physico-chemical characteristic

Proximate Composition, Energy Contents and Blood Sugar Responses of Stiff Porridge and Rice Meals Consumed in Kenya

The term glycemic index has been used to categorize carbohydrate-rich foods on the basis of their blood sugar raising potential. Despite the existence of a table of glycemic indices of some foods, the glycemic indices of staple foods consumed in Kenya is still very scanty. This study therefore was designed to evaluate the glycemic indices (GI) of rice and stiff or thick porridge (ugali), the most commonly consumed staple foods in Kenya. Ugali is usually served with side dishes of cowpea leaves or beef and rice is usually served with either beans or beef stews among other accompaniments. The foods were analyzed for proximate composition using the AOAC methods. Glycemic index was determined following FAO/WHO recommended methodology. From the results of proximate analyses, it was established that the content of carbohydrates varied in the order: Ugali > rice > beans > cowpea leaves. Glycemic indices followed the order plain rice (77) > ugali and beef (71) > rice and beef (69) > rice and beans = plain ugali (62) > ugali and cowpea leaves (45) > plain beans (44). The GI values for these foods were significantly different (p<0.05). Despite this, all the foods had a high glycemic load (≥20). However, cowpea leaves and beans lowered the GI of ugali and white rice respectively. This GI lowering effect is especially important in the dietary management of diabetes mellitus. Key words: proximate composition, energy content, glycemic index, glycemic load, Keny

Nutritional knowledge and dietary diversity of cancer patients at the Cancer Treatment Centre, Kenyatta National Hospital, Kenya

Cancer cases are on the increase in Kenya and have become one of the leading public health issues. This increase is possibly attributed to change in behavior and adoption of predisposing factors such as increase in environmental carcinogens and unhealthy lifestyles. Cancer patients undergo treatment regimes such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The treatment regimes are aggressive and result in side effects that lead to cancer cachexia. However, cancer patients are not equipped with the necessary information to handle these side effects in the required way to ensure a good nutrition status as treatment progresses. The purpose of the study was to show the relationship between nutritional knowledge and dietary diversity among cancer patients. Dietary diversity was used as an indicator of dietary practice. A cross sectional study was done on 132 patients selected through simple random sampling technique, attending the cancer treatment centre clinic at Kenyatta National Hospital from October to November 2012. Patients interviewed were either undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Interviewer administered questionnaires were administered voluntarily to the patients. Each questionnaire captured information on the patient’s socio-demographic and economic status, type of cancer, nutritional knowledge, and dietary diversity. The data was analyzed using SPSS Version16.0 (2007) statistical software. The patients were predominantly middle-aged (36-59yrs) with cancer most prevalent being breast cancer (55%) among women and prostate cancer among men (21%). The mean of total nutrition knowledge score among the cancer patients was 46±2%. The average dietary diversity score was 4±1. The Pearson’s correlation coefficient between nutrition knowledge and Dietary Diversity Score (DDS) was 0.15 (P>0.05). The patient’s nutritional knowledge was positively correlated with the dietary diversity score. This meant that patients with good nutrition knowledge had more diverse diets. However, the correlation was not statistically significant. Therefore, nutrition knowledge should be included during dietary counseling of patients to enable them improve their dietary practice.Keywords: Nutritional knowledge, Dietary diversity, Cancer, Dietary behavior, Cachexi

Effects of Poor Post-slaughter Handling Practices on Microbiological Quality of Fresh Beef from Slaughterhouses in Kenya

Compliance to appropriate post-slaughter practices during meat processing is crucial for production of safe meat and meat products. Meat quality is highly influenced by the prevailing hygiene conditions during production and processing. Poor hygienic conditions can lead to meat contamination and spoilage by pathogenic bacteria hence food borne illnesses and subsequently meat losses. This study evaluated the effects of poor handling practices on the safety and quality of fresh beef from slaughterhouses mainly in pastoral regions in Kenya. About 95 meat and surface swab samples were collected and analysed for total viable counts, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes. The mean Staphylococcus aureus from the rump, neck, stomach and hind legs were 5.436, 6.153, 4.868 and 4.977 log CFUg-1 respectively while that for Listeria monocytogenes was 2.259, 2.301, 2.301 and 2.392 log CFUg-1 from rump, neck stomach and hind legs respectively. The highest mean of Escherichia coli counts (3.521 log CFUg-1) was observed from the stomach. The mean TVC counts (6.339 log CFUg-1) were observed at the neck region.  The mean S. aureus, E.coli and TVC were 6.058, 4.504 and 4.491 log CFU/cm2 from the weighing scale while mean S.aureus, E. coli and TVC from steel file were 6.161, 3.482 and 3.733 log CFU/cm2 respectively. The means for S.aureus, E.coli and TVC from wedging knife were 5.926, 3.578 and 4.627 log CFU/cm2 respectively.  The means for S. aureus, E. coli and TVC were 6.141, 3.716 and 4.627 log CFU/cm2 respectively from dust coats whereas those for S. aureus, E. coli and TVC were 6.264, 4.637 and 3.733 log CFU/cm2 respectively from gumboots. The head cover also had its significant level of contamination with S. aureus, E. coli and TVC at 6.161, 3.690 and 4.491 log CFUg-1 respectively. Means for S. aureus and E. coli from clothing, equipment and fresh meat were significantly different (p<0.05).  The level of meat contamination was high and this was attributed to poor handling practices and hygiene conditions. This then necessitates the need for training and capacity building of slaughterhouses and personnel on the need for proper hygiene and good handling practices. Keywords: Post-slaughter Practices; Microbiological Quality; Fresh Beef; Hygiene Practice

Aflatoxin Contents and Exposure in Young Children, and Sensory Characteristics of a Nixtamalized Supplementary Porridge

Aflatoxin contamination of maize, is of major concern in Malawi, and levels are much higher than the tolerance limits for aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxins. Maize is a staple for Malawians and the forms prepared for consumption are presumed to have carryover toxins.  Likuni phala; a porridge flour formulated from maize and soybean in the ratio of 4:1(w/w), was developed as a supplementary food to alleviate Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM), which is highly prevalent  in under five year old children. It is assumed that the product is contaminated with carryover aflatoxin. Nixtamalization or alkali cooking has been found to reduce aflatoxin contents among other effects. The aim of this study was to establish the levels of total aflatoxin in the Likuni phala, determine their reduction in porridge preparation by addition of alkali, assess the exposure to aflatoxin in small children and also test for its sensory acceptability. Samples were collected from three factories, two cottage and one large, all located in districts of the Southern Region of Malawi. Three samples were collected from each factory at two week intervals. The samples were analysed for total aflatoxin, then cooked into porridge with addition of lime at levels between 0.1% – 0.8%. The porridges were analysed for aflatoxin and subjected to sensory evaluation. Exposure to aflatoxin on the children was also calculated.  Results showed that aflatoxin was absent in the samples from the cottage industries, but all the three samples from the large factory contained levels above the tolerance levels (10µg kg-1 for total and 5µg kg-1 for Aflatoxin B1). Cooking with alkali reduced the levels of aflatoxin to below the tolerance levels even at the lowest level of alkali addition. Sensory evaluation showed that the porridges were acceptable only up to 0.4% lime addition. The potential aflatoxin exposure to children was substantially reduced. The study concluded that acceptable Likuni phala porridge with aflatoxin levels below the tolerance levels, and substantially reduced exposure in children can be prepared by cooking with alkali addition. Keywords: Aflatoxin, Supplemental maize porridge, Nixtamalization, acceptability, Under 5 children

Nutritional quality, phytochemical composition and health protective effects of an under-utilized prickly cactus fruit (Opuntia stricta Haw.) collected from Kenya

The cactus fruit belongs to the Cactaceae family and is native to the arid and semi-arid regions of the world, where the production of more succulent food plants is severely limited. Opuntia stricta Haw, fruits have recently invaded the harsh dry rangelands of the Laikipia Plateau of North-eastern Kenya. These cactus fruits contribute immensely to the nutrition and food security needs of humans living in Laikipia. Despite the health benefits of these fruits, the cactus plant faces the possibility of extinction due to adverse effects of the prickly fruit when ingested by the livestock belonging to the local communities in Laikipia. The present study, therefore, was designed to assess the chemical composition, bioactive compounds and their health promoting properties in Opuntia stricta cactus fruits. The results showed that the cactus pulp is a rich source of ascorbic acid (60 mg/100 g), minerals (622 mg/kg P, 12.8 mg/kg Ca, 38 mg/kg Fe and 91 mg/kg Na), and sugars (18.5 mg sucrose, 10.9 mg glucose and 6.9 mg fructose). The seeds contained significant amount of protein (4.13%), oil (11.5%), fibre (12.3%), βcarotene (56 µg/100 g) and total carotenoids (289 µg/100 g). The seed oil contained high levels of linoleic (70%), palmitic (12.5%) and stearic (12.3%) acids. The main fatty acids were linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids with high unsaturation level (83%). The principal amino acids in the fruits were arginine, tyrosine, glutamic acid, proline and aspartic acid. The cactus whole fruits exhibited remarkable levels of total phenols (1.6 g/100g), flavonoids (197 mg/100g), tannins (1.5 g/100g) and phytates (2.6 g/100g). The phytochemical extracts demonstrated high antioxidant activity in terms of FRAP assay (1.2-6.9 µg/mM Fe (II) reducing power) and DPPH assay (73-86%). The anti-diabetic effect of the extracts showed strong inhibition (> 50%) of α-glucosidase as compared to the α- amylase inhibition. Thus, consumption of O. stricta fruits could meet the key nutritional requirements and help to address the double burden of food insecurity and chronic diseases among communities living in the drylands of Kenya. The results of this study could help inform the public on the nutritional and health benefits of the Opuntia cactus fruit and address issues raised by the media on the possible eradication of cactus plants in Laikipia and other drylands regions of Kenya.Key words: Opuntia stricta, bioactive compounds, antioxidants, diabetes

Glycemic Responses to Stiff Porridge (Ugali) Meals Consumed in Western Kenya

Glycemic responses which have been measured in terms of glycemic indices (GIs) differ among various carbohydrate-rich foods. Despite the existence of a GI Table of most common foods, the records of the GIs of most Kenyan traditional foods still remain scanty. This study therefore evaluated the GIs of Kenya’s most popular food, ugali which is a stiff mash of maize meal, cassava, finger millet, sorghum or any combinations thereof with water. This study considered ugali prepared from whole maize and cassava-sorghum flours which were served in accompaniment with cowpea leaves or silver fish. The meals were analyzed for proximate composition by AOAC method and the amount of carbohydrates varied in the order: ugali > cassava-sorghum ugali > silver fish > cowpea leaves. GI was determined following FAO/WHO recommended methodology and results followed the order: cassava-sorghum ugali with silver fish (83) > GI whole maize ugali with silver fish = cassava-sorghum with cowpeas leaves (69) > whole maize ugali with cowpea leaves (45). The GIs of these meals were significantly different (p<0.05). Cowpea leaves seem to lower the GI of ugali which is important in planning diets for people with tendency to hyperglycemia such as diabetes mellitus patients. Key words: glycemic index, glycemic load, stiff porridge, Western Keny