Petrography and Mineral Chemistry of Magmatic and Hydrothermal Biotite in Porphyry Copper-Gold Deposits: a Tool for Understanding Mineralizing Fluid Compositional Changes During Alteration Processes

DOI: 10.17014/ijog.5.1.47-64This study aims to understand the petrography and chemistry of both magmatic and hydrothermal biotites in porphyry copper-gold deposits, and to evaluate the fluid compositional changes during alteration processes. A total of 206 biotite grains from selected rock samples taken from the Batu Hijau porphyry Cu-Au deposit was analyzed. Detailed petrography and biotite chemistry analysis were performed on thin sections and polished thin sections, respectively, representing various rocks and alteration types. A JEOL JXA-8900R electron microprobe analyzer (EMPA) was used for the chemistry analysis. The biotite is texturally divided into magmatic and hydrothermal types. Ti, Fe, and F contents can be used to distinguish the two biotite types chemically. Some oxide and halogen contents of biotite from various rocks and alteration types demonstrate a systematic variation in chemical composition. Biotite halogen chemistry shows a systematic increase in log (XCl/XOH) and decrease in log (XF/XOH) values from biotite (potassic) through chlorite-sericite (intermediate argillic) to actinolite (inner propylitic) zones. The y-intercepts on the log (XCl/XOH) vs. XMg and log (XF/XOH) vs. XFe plotted for biotite from potassic and intermediate argillic zones are similar or slightly different. In contrast, the y-intercepts on the log (XCl/XOH) vs. XMg and log (XF/XOH) vs. XFe plotted for biotite from inner propylitic zone display different values in comparison to the two alteration zones. Halogen (F,Cl) fugacity ratios in biotite show a similar pattern: in the potassic and intermediate argillic zones they show little variation, whereas in the inner propylitic zone they are distinctly different. These features suggest the hydrothermal fluid composition remained fairly constant in the inner part of the deposit during the potassic and intermediate argillic alteration events, but changed significantly towards the outer part affected by inner propylitic alteration. High halogen content, particularly Cl, in hydrothermal biotite may portray that copper and gold were transported in mineralizing fluids in the form of chloride complexes CuCl2- and AuCl2-, respectively

Geology and Characteristics of Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag Skarn Deposit at Ruwai, Lamandau Regency, Central Kalimantan

DOI: 10.17014/ijog.v6i4.126This study is dealing with geology and characteristics of mineralogy, geochemistry, and physicochemical conditions of hydrothermal fluid responsible for the formation of skarn Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag deposit at Ruwai, Lamandau Regency, Central Kalimantan. The formation of Ruwai skarn is genetically associated with calcareous rocks consisting of limestone and siltstone (derived from marl?) controlled by NNE-SSW-trending strike slip faults. It is localized along N 70° E-trending thrust fault, which also acts as the contact zone between sedimentary and volcanic rocks in the area. The Ruwai skarn is mineralogically characterized by prograde alteration comprising garnet (andradite) and clino-pyroxene (wollastonite), and retrograde alteration composed of epidote, chlorite, calcite, and sericite. Ore mineralization is typified by sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, formed at early retrograde stage. Galena is typically enriched in silver up to 0.45 wt % and bismuth of about 1 wt %. No Ag-sulphides are identified within the ore body. Geochemically, SiO is enriched and CaO is depleted in limestone, consistent with silicic alteration (quartz and calc-silicate) and decarbonatization of the wallrock. The measured resources of the deposit are 2,297,185 tonnes at average grades of 14.98 % Zn, 6.44% Pb, 2.49 % Cu, and 370.87 g/t Ag. Ruwai skarn orebody was originated at moderate temperatures of 250 - 266 °C and low salinity of 0.3 - 0.5 wt.% NaCl eq. The late retrograde stage was formed at low temperature of 190 - 220 °C and low salinity of ~0.35 wt.% NaCl eq., which was influenced by meteoric water incursion at the late stage of the Ruwai Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag skarn formation

Characteristics and Origin of Sedimentary-Related Manganese Layers in Timor Island, Indonesia

DOI: 10.17014/ijog.v8i4.169Sedimentary-related manganese layers have been discovered in South Central Timor Regency, Timor Island, Indonesia, which is tectonically active and being uplifted due to north-trending tectonic collision between Timor Island arc and Australian continental crust. The manganese layers of 2 to 10 cm-wide interbed with deep sea sedimentary rocks including reddish - reddish brown claystone, radiolarian chert, slate, marl as well as white and pinkish calcilutite of Nakfunu Formations. Stratigraphically, the rock formations are underlain by Bobonaro Formation. Two types of manganese ores found comprise manganese layers and manganese nodule. The manganese layers strongly deformed, lenticular, and segmented, are composed of manganite [MnO(OH)], groutite [MnO(OH)], pyrolusite (MnO2), lithioporite (Al,Li) MnO2(OH)2, and hollandite [Ba (Mn4+, Mn2+)8O16] associated with gangue minerals including calcite, quartz, limonite [FeO(OH)], hematite (Fe2O3), and barite (BaSO4). Whilst the nodule type is only composed of manganite and less limonite. Geochemically, the manganese layers have grade of 63 - 72 wt.% MnO, whereas the nodule one has grade of 63 - 69 wt.% MnO. Generally, iron in Mn ore is very low ranging from 0.2 to 1.54 wt.% Fe2O3, averaged 0.76 wt.%. Hence, Fe/Mn ratio which is very low (0.003 - 0.069), typically indicates a sedimentary origin, which is also supported by petrologic and petrographic data showing layering structure of manganite and lithioporite crystal/grain. Trace element geochemistry indicates that manganese ore was precipitated in a reduction condition. Rare earth element (REE) analysis of manganese ore shows an enrichment of cerium (Ce) suggesting that the ore is basically originated in a marine environment. The manganese nodule is interpreted to be formed by chemical concretion process of unsoluble metals (i.e. mangan, iron) in seawater (hydrogenous) and precipitated on deep sea bottom. On the other hand, the manganese layer is a detrital diagenetic deposit formed by Mn remobilization in seawater column, precipitated and sedimented on the deep sea bottom. Manganese layers have probably been influenced by ‘hydrothermal process' of mud-volcano activities, proven by the presence of quartz and barite veinlets cutting the Mn layers, manganite recrystallization to be pyrolusite along veinlets cutting manganite and lithioporite layers, and the presence of pyrite and sulphur associated with Mn layers. Field data also exhibit that the significant manganese layers are mostly found around mud volcanoes. The closely spatial and genetic relationships between manganese layers and mud-volcanoes might also be an important guide for the exploration of Mn deposit in the region

Metamorphic Rock-Hosted Orogenic Gold Deposit Type as a Source of Langkowala Placer Gold, Bombana, Southeast Sulawesi

DOI: 10.17014/ijog.v6i1.114In 2008, placer gold was discovered in Langkowala area (Bombana Regency), Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia, and more than 60,000 traditional gold miners in the early 2009 have been operating by digging vertical pits and panning active stream sediments. The grade of placer gold ranges from 50 to 140 g/t. Local geological framework indicates that the placer gold is not related to volcanic rock-related hydrothermal gold deposit, e.g. epithermal, skarn or porphyry. This paper describes a preliminary study on possible primary deposit type as a source of the Langkowala (Bombana) secondary placer gold. A field study indicates that the Langkowala (Bombana) placer/paleoplacer gold is possibly related to gold-bearing quartz veins/veinlets hosted by metamorphic rocks particularly mica schist and metasediments in the area. These quartz veins/veinlets are currently recognized in metamorphic rocks at Wumbubangka Mountains, a northern flank of Rumbia Mountain Range. Sheared, segmented quartz veins/veinlets are of 2 cm to 2 m in width and contain gold in a grade varying between 2 and 61 g/t. At least, there are two generations of the quartz veins. The first generation of quartz vein is parallel to foliation of mica schist and metasediments with general orientation of N 300oE/60o; the second quartz vein generation crosscut the first quartz vein and the foliation of the wallrock. The first quartz veins are mostly sheared/deformed, brecciated, and occasionally sigmoidal, whereas the second quartz veins are relatively massive. The similar quartz veins/veinlets types are also probably present in Mendoke Mountain Range, in the northern side of Langkowala area. This primary gold deposit is called as ‘orogenic gold type\u27. The orogenic gold deposit could be a new target of gold exploration in Indonesia in the future

Some Key Features and Possible Origin of the Metamorphic Rock-Hosted Gold Mineralization in Buru Island, Indonesia

DOI: 10.17014/ijog.v1i1.172This paper discusses characteristics of some key features of the primary Buru gold deposit as a tool for a better understanding of the deposit genesis. Currently, about 105,000 artisanal and small-scale gold miners (ASGM) are operating in two main localities, i.e. Gogorea and Gunung Botak by digging pits/shafts following gold-bearing quartz vein orientation. The gold extraction uses mercury (amalgamation) and cyanide processing. The field study identifies two types/generations of quartz veins namely (1) Early quartz veins which are segmented, sigmoidal, dis­continous, and parallel to the foliation of host rock. The quartz vein is lack of sulfides, weak mineralized, crystalline, relatively clear, and maybe poor in gold, and (2) Quartz veins occurred within a ‘mineralized zone\u27 of about 100 m in width and ~1,000 m in length. The gold mineralization is strongly overprinted by an argillic alteration zone. The mineralization-alteration zone is probably parallel to the mica schist foliation and strongly controlled by N-S or NE-SW-trending structures. The gold-bearing quartz veins are characterized by banded texture particularly colloform following host rock foliation and sulphide banding, brecciated, and rare bladed-like texture. The alteration types consist of propylitic (chlorite, calcite, sericite), argillic, and carbonation represented by graphite banding and carbon flakes. The ore mineralization is characterized by pyrite, native gold, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite. Cinnabar, stibnite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite are rare or maybe absent. In general, sulphide minerals are rare (<3%). Fifteen rock samples were collected in Wamsaid area for geochemical assaying for Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Cu, Pb, and Zn. Eleven of fifteen samples yielded more than 1.00 g/t Au, in which six of them are in excess of 3.00 g/t Au. It can be noted that all high-grade samples are originally or containing limonitic materials, that suggest the role of supergene enrichment. Interestingly, most of the high-grade samples contain also high grade As (up to 991ppm), Sb (up to 885 ppm), and Hg (up to 75 ppm). Fluid inclusions in both quartz vein types consist of four phases including L-rich, V-rich, L-V-rich, and L1-L2-V (CO2)-rich phases. Mineralizing hydrothermal fluid is typified by CO2-rich fluid, moderate temperature of 300 - 400 ºC and a typical low salinity (0.36 to 0.54 wt.% NaCl eq). Based on those key features, gold mineraliza­tion in Buru Island meets the characteristics of LS epithermal or orogenic gold deposit types; however, it tends to be fitter with orogenic gold deposit rather than another type

Thermal and Infrared Studies of Garnierite From the Soroako Nickeliferous Laterite Deposit, Sulawesi, Indonesia

DOI: 10.17014/ijog.v7i2.137Mineralogical characterization of some garnierite samples from Soroako have been conducted using X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis, and infrared spectroscopy methods. XRD patterns reveal the samples mainly containing the mixture of kerolite (talc-like phase) and serpentine with minor smectite, sepiolite, and silica. Thermal analyses of garnierite samples indicated by DTA curves are in good agreement with patterns that have been reported in literature. Three endothermic peaks normally occur in the ranges between 58º C and <800º C illustrating three steps of weight losses: adsorbed, bound, and hydroxyl/crystal water. One additional weight loss in low temperature region of sepiolite is corresponding to the lost of zeolitic water. Infrared spectra appeared in 3800 - 3200 cm-1 region generally exhibit broad absorption bands, indicating low crystallinities of studied samples and can be assigned to the presence of hydroxyl group bonded to octahedral coordination mainly Mg atom. The bands observed at 1660 cm-1, 1639 cm-1, 1637 cm-1, and 1633 cm-1 in all samples indicate water molecules. FTIR spectra displaying the strong bands at 1045 cm-1, 1038 cm-1, and 1036 cm-1 could be related to the presence of Si-O-Si bonds linking to tetrahedral coordination. The strong absorption bands appeared at 511 cm-1, 505 cm-1, 499 cm-1, and 496 cm-1 in respective samples are attributed to divalent cation bonds (e.g. Mg, Ni-O). Both TG/DTA and FTIR seem to be the powerful tool in diagnosing the crystal chemistry of garnierite which is mainly composed of phyllosilicate minerals

Geologi, Alterasi Hidrotermal dan Mineralisasi Bijih Endapan Emas Epitermal Sulfidasi Tinggi Pit Ramba Joring, Desa Aek Pining, Kecamatan Batangtoru, Kabupaten Tapanuli Selatan, Provinsi Sumatra Utara

Pit Ramba Joring di Desa Aek Pining, Kecamatan Batangtoru, Kabupaten Tapanuli Selatan, Provinsi Sumatera Utara memiliki zonasi kadar Au yang berasosiasi dengan urat dan batuan samping yang mengalami alterasi dan oksidasi tinggi. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kondisi geologi yang mengontrol alterasi dan mineralisasi, karakteristik alterasi dan mineralisasi bijih, asosiasi unsur Au terhadap Cu dan genesa endapan emas epitermal sulfidasi tinggi di daerah penelitian. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan secara sistematis menggunakan metode grid soil sampling dan anaconda mapping. Identifikasi batuan dilakukan dengan mengintegrasikan hasil analisis laboratorium yang terdiri dari petrografi, mineralogi bijih, ASD, dan FA-AAS. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa geologi daerah penelitian berupa kubah intrusi yang tersusun oleh litologi berupa satuan andesit hornblenda, breksi matriks pasiran dan breksi multi fase lempung dengan struktur geologi terdiri dari kekar (pre-mineralisasi), sesar geser sinistral (syn-mineralisasi) dan sesar normal diperkirakan (post-mineralisasi) berarah timur laut-barat daya. Tipe alterasi yang berkembang terdiri dari zona argilik (ilit-smektit+kaolinit+ilit), argilik lanjut (silika+dikit+alunit+kaolinit) dan silika vuggy-masif. Mineral bijih yang dijumpai berupa emas, enagrit, kovelit, pirit, goetit, hematit dan jarosit sementara mineral gangue yang dijumpai berupa kuarsa, kaolinit, ilit dan smektit. Kadar Au diperoleh 4 golongan, yaitu waste rock (2,5 ppm). Keterdapatan emas umumnya berasosiasi dengan mineral enargit sebab dijumpai kadar unsur Au dengan kadar high grade ( 61,05 ppm) dan unsur Cu dengan kadar 0,675 % pada bagian timur daerah penelitian. Berdasarkan karakteristik tersebut dapat diketahui bahwa daerah penelitian termasuk endapan epitermal sulfidasi tinggi dengan proses pembentukan kedalaman paleosurface dangkal-intermediet