Mechanomyographic amplitude and frequency responses during dynamic muscle actions: a comprehensive review

The purpose of this review is to examine the literature that has investigated mechanomyographic (MMG) amplitude and frequency responses during dynamic muscle actions. To date, the majority of MMG research has focused on isometric muscle actions. Recent studies, however, have examined the MMG time and/or frequency domain responses during various types of dynamic activities, including dynamic constant external resistance (DCER) and isokinetic muscle actions, as well as cycle ergometry. Despite the potential influences of factors such as changes in muscle length and the thickness of the tissue between the muscle and the MMG sensor, there is convincing evidence that during dynamic muscle actions, the MMG signal provides valid information regarding muscle function. This argument is supported by consistencies in the MMG literature, such as the close relationship between MMG amplitude and power output and a linear increase in MMG amplitude with concentric torque production. There are still many issues, however, that have yet to be resolved, and the literature base for MMG during both dynamic and isometric muscle actions is far from complete. Thus, it is important to investigate the unique applications of MMG amplitude and frequency responses with different experimental designs/methodologies to continually reassess the uses/limitations of MMG

Eccentric Exercise Activates Novel Transcriptional Regulation of Hypertrophic Signaling Pathways Not Affected by Hormone Changes

Unaccustomed eccentric exercise damages skeletal muscle tissue, activating mechanisms of recovery and remodeling that may be influenced by the female sex hormone 17β-estradiol (E2). Using high density oligonucleotide based microarrays, we screened for differences in mRNA expression caused by E2 and eccentric exercise. After random assignment to 8 days of either placebo (CON) or E2 (EXP), eighteen men performed 150 single-leg eccentric contractions. Muscle biopsies were collected at baseline (BL), following supplementation (PS), +3 hours (3H) and +48 hours (48H) after exercise. Serum E2 concentrations increased significantly with supplementation (P<0.001) but did not affect microarray results. Exercise led to early transcriptional changes in striated muscle activator of Rho signaling (STARS), Rho family GTPase 3 (RND3), mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) regulation and the downstream transcription factor FOS. Targeted RT-PCR analysis identified concurrent induction of negative regulators of calcineurin signaling RCAN (P<0.001) and HMOX1 (P = 0.009). Protein contents were elevated for RND3 at 3H (P = 0.02) and FOS at 48H (P<0.05). These findings indicate that early RhoA and NFAT signaling and regulation are altered following exercise for muscle remodeling and repair, but are not affected by E2

Effect of end-point cadence on the maximal work-time relationship

This study examined the effect of end-point cadence on the parameters of the work-time relationship determined for cycle ergometry. Eight male subjects completed four maximal tests on an electrically-braked cycle ergometer that regulated a constant power output independent of cadence. The power outputs imposed ranged between an average of 259 W and 403 W, whereas the corresponding durations ranged between 139 s and 1691 s. During each test subjects were required to maintain a cadence of 80-90 rpm. Accumulated time to end-point cadences of 70, 60 and 50 rpm were recorded. The four work-time determinations for each of three end-point cadences were used to determine linear relationships between work and time, yielding both a y-intercept, which represents anaerobic work capacity, and a slope, which is termed critical power (CP), for each end-point cadence. There was a significant increase in the y-intercept as end-point cadence decreased from 70 to 60 rpm (F[1,7] = 36.7, p 0.05). In contrast, there was no effect of end-point cadence on CP (F[2,14] = 1.89, p < 0.05). These results demonstrate that the end-point cadence selected to terminate tests only affects the y-intercept of the work-time relationship. To control for this effect, the cadence at which each test is terminated should be standardised if determination of anaerobic work capacity, as represented by the y-intercept, is required

The influence of recovery duration between periods of exercise on the critical power function

It has been shown that when three periods of exercise at different intensities are performed to exhaustion, the linear regression of the work accomplished on the time taken defines the critical power (CP) function. The slope of this function is related to endurance ability, whereas the γ-intercept is considered to represent anaerobic work capacity (AWC). The purpose of this study was to determine whether two different recovery durations (3 and 24 h), separating three periods of exercise, would elicit differences in the linear CP function. Nine healthy, untrained female students [19.5 (SD 1.6) years] completed five sessions of cycle exercise to exhaustion in random order (familiarisation). Three of these five power outputs were then used in the main part of the study in which the subjects were randomly assigned to two groups. Group one first performed the three power outputs on the same day, with 3 h of passive recovery separating each session (3 on 1). Group two first performed the three power outputs on 3 consecutive days, with approximately 24 h between sessions (3 con). Following 1 day of rest, group one repeated their three power outputs on 3 consecutive days and group two completed their three tests on the same day. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed no significant differences between the mean values of CP or AWC calculated from the 3 on 1 or 3 con conditions. Trial two estimates of CP were, however, 3.4% (P < 0.05) higher than trial one (familiarisation) estimates. The results of this study showed that reliable measurements of both CP and AWC can be determined from three tests separated by rest periods of 3 h, provided that the subjects are first familiarised with the tests. We found one series of we exercise sessions to be sufficient familiarisation to ensure similar subsequent estimates of CP

Utilização da relação potência-tempo até exaustão em testes de caminhada para avaliação da aptidão aeróbia Use of the power-time until exhaustion relantionship in walk tests to evaluate aerobic fitness

O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar a aptidão aeróbia em testes de caminhada com carga externa aplicada por meio da inclinação da esteira, a partir da relação não linear entre inclinação da esteira e tempo até a exaustão em velocidade fixa. Doze indivíduos do gênero masculino com 23,2 ± 2,7 anos de idade, 74,0 ± 7,9kg de massa corporal e 23,7 ± 2,5kg·(m²)-1 de IMC, realizaram duas etapas de testes de caminhada em esteira ergométrica com velocidade fixa de 5,5km·h-1 em todos os testes e sobrecarga de intensidade aplicada por meio de inclinação da esteira (%). A etapa 1 consistiu de três testes retangulares até a exaustão voluntária, nas intensidades de 18%, 20% e 22% de inclinação, para determinação dos parâmetros do modelo de potência crítica por dois modelos lineares e um hiperbólico. A etapa 2 consistiu na determinação da intensidade correspondente ao máximo estado estável de lactato sanguíneo (MEEL). ANOVA demonstrou que o modelo hiperbólico (15,4 ± 1,1%) resultou em estimativa significativamente menor que os outros dois modelos lineares inclinação-tempo-1 (16,0 ± 1,0%) e hiperbólico linearizado tempo-1-inclinação (15,9 ± 1,0%), porém, houve alta correlação entre os modelos. Os dois modelos lineares superestimaram a intensidade do MEEL (14,1 ± 1,4%), e o modelo hiperbólico, mesmo sem diferença estatística, apresentou fraca correlação, com baixa concordância em relação ao MEEL. Conclui-se que a relação inclinação-tempo até a exaustão, em testes de caminhada, não permitem a estimativa de intensidade de exercício suportável por longo período de tempo.<br>The aim of the present study was to evaluate aerobic fitness during walk tests with workload increased by treadmill inclination, based on non-linear relationship between treadmill inclination and time until exhaustion in steady velocity. Twelve male subjects, 23.2 ± 2.7 years old, 74.0 ± 7.9 kg of body mass and 23.7 ± 2.5 kg·(m²)-1 of BMI, performed two phases of treadmill walk tests with steady velocity during all tests of 5.5 km·h-1 and intensity workload applied on the treadmill inclination (%). Phase 1 consisted of tree workout tests until voluntary exhaustion at 18%, 20% and 22% of inclination intensity, for critical power parameters determination, by using two linear models and a hyperbolic model. Phase 2 consisted of determination of the maximal blood lactate steady state (MLSS) intensity. ANOVA showed that the hyperbolic model (15.4 ± 1.1 %) underestimated both linear models: linear inclination-time-1 (16.0 ± 1.0 %) and hyperbolic linear time-1-inclination (15.9 ± 1.0 %); however, there was high correlation. Both linear models overestimated the MLSS intensity (14.1 ± 1.4%), and although there was no difference between the MLSS and the hyperbolic model, they had low correlation and there was a lower agreement. In conclusion, the inclination-time to exhaustion ratio in walk tests does not show an exercise intensity that can be bearable for a long period of time

Máxima fase estável de lactato sanguíneo e potência crítica em ciclistas bem treinados Maximal lactate steady state and critical power in well-trained cyclists

O principal objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a intensidade correspondente à máxima fase estável de lactato (MLSS) e a potência crítica (PC) durante o ciclismo em indivíduos bem treinados. Seis ciclistas do sexo masculino (25,5 ± 4,4 anos, 68,8 ± 3,0kg, 173,0 ± 4,0cm) realizaram em diferentes dias os seguintes testes: exercício incremental até a exaustão para a determinação do pico de consumo de oxigênio (VO2pico) e sua respectiva intensidade (IVO2pico); cinco a sete testes de carga constante para a determinação da MLSS e da PC; e um exercício até a exaustão na PC. A MLSS foi considerada com a maior intensidade de exercício onde a concentração de lactato não aumentou mais do que 1mM entre o 10º e o 30º min de exercício. Os valores individuais de potência (95, 100 e 110% IVO2pico) e seu respectivo tempo máximo de exercício (Tlim) foram ajustados a partir do modelo hiperbólico de dois parâmetros para a determinação da PC. Embora altamente correlacionadas (r = 0,99; p = 0,0001), a PC (313,5 ± 32,3W) foi significantemente maior do que a MLLS (287,0 ± 37,8W) (p = 0,0002). A diferença percentual da PC em relação à MLSS foi de 9,5 ± 3,1%. No exercício realizado na PC, embora tenha existido componente lento do VO2 (CL = 400,8 ± 267,0 ml.min-1), o VO2pico não foi alcançado (91,1 ± 3,3 %). Com base nesses resultados pode-se concluir que a PC e a MLSS identificam diferentes intensidades de exercício, mesmo em atletas com elevada aptidão aeróbia. Entretanto, o percentual da diferença entre a MLLS e PC (9%) indica que relação entre esses dois índices pode depender da aptidão aeróbia. Durante o exercício realizado até a exaustão na PC, o CL que é desenvolvido não permite que o VO2pico seja alcançado.<br>The main objective of this study was to compare the intensity corresponding to the maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) and critical power (CP) in well-trained cyclists. Six male cyclists (25.5 ± 4.4 years, 68.8 ± 3.0 kg, 173.0 ± 4.0 cm) performed in different days the following tests: incremental exercise test until exhaustion to determine peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and its respective intensity (IVO2peak); five to seven constant workload tests to determine MLSS and CP and; one exhaustion test at CP. MLSS was defined as the highest workload at which blood lactate concentration did not increase by more than 1 mM between minutes 10 and 30 of the constant workload. Individual values for power-Tlim from the constant workload tests (95, 100 and 110% IVO2peak) were fit to the hyperbolic model of two-parameter to determine CP. Although highly correlated (r = 0.99; p = 0.0001), CP (313.5 + 32.3 W) was statistically higher than MLSS (287.0 + 37.8 W) (p = 0.0002). The percentual difference between CP and MLSS was 9.5 + 3.1 %. During exercise performed at CP, although a slow component of VO2 has developed (SC = 400.8 + 267.0 ml.min-1), the VO2peak was not attained (91.1 + 3.3 %). Based on these results, it can be concluded that CP and MLSS identify different exercise intensities, even in athletes with high fitness level. However, the percentual difference between CP and MLSS (9%) indicates that the relationship between these indexes may depend on aerobic fitness. During exercise performed at CP, the SC does not allow VO2peak to be attained