Microplastic pollution in a rapidly changing world: Implications for remote and vulnerable marine ecosystems

Ecosystems in remote regions tend to be highly specific, having historically evolved over long timescales in relatively constant environmental conditions, with little human influence. Such regions are amongst those most physically altering and biologically threatened by global climate change. In addition, they are increasingly receiving anthropogenic pollution. Microplastic pollution has now been found in these most remote places on earth, far from most human activities. Microplastics can induce complex and wide-ranging physical and chemical effects but little to date is known of their long-term biological impacts. In combination with climate-induced stress, microplastics may lead to enhanced multi-stress impacts, potentially affecting the health and resilience of species and ecosystems. While species in historically populated areas have had some opportunity to adapt to mounting human influence over centuries and millennia, the relatively rapid intensification of widespread anthropogenic activities in recent decades has provided species in previously ‘untouched’ regions little such opportunities. The characteristics of remote ecosystems and the species therein suggest that they could be more sensitive to the combined effects of microplastic pollution, global physical change and other stressors than elsewhere. Here we discuss how species and ecosystems within two remote yet contrasting regions, coastal Antarctica and the deep sea, might be especially vulnerable to harm from microplastic pollution in the context of a rapidly changing environment

Introduction: Plastic pollution in the global ocean

Plastic pollution is a growing environmental problem that is attracting increasing interest across society, from academics to the general public. A significant factor in the wide public interest in plastics is its visibility: present throughout urban and rural environments, washing up on beaches and even visible from space (Biermann et al., 2020; Topouzelis et al., 2019). With growing plastic production and usage, plastic waste within the environment will continue to increase. This increased input, along with its persistence, leads to accumulation and increasing ecosystem exposure, with as-yet-unknown consequences

The influence of exposure and physiology on microplastic ingestion by the freshwater fish Rutilus rutilus (roach) in the River Thames, UK

Microplastics are widespread throughout aquatic environments. However, there is currently insufficient understanding of the factors influencing ingestion of microplastics by organisms, especially higher predators such as fish. In this study we link ingestion of microplastics by the roach Rutilus rutilus, within the non-tidal part of the River Thames, to exposure and physiological factors. Microplastics were found within the gut contents of roach from six out of seven sampling sites. Of sampled fish, 33% contained at least one microplastic particle. The majority of particles were fibres (75%), with fragments and films also seen (22.7% and 2.3% respectively). Polymers identified were polyethylene, polypropylene and polyester, in addition to a synthetic dye. The maximum number of ingested microplastic particles for individual fish was strongly correlated to exposure (based on distance from the source of the river). Additionally, at a given exposure, the size of fish correlated with the actual quantity of microplastics in the gut. Larger (mainly female) fish were more likely to ingest the maximum possible number of particles than smaller (mainly male) fish. This study is the first to show microplastic ingestion within freshwater fish in the UK and provides valuable new evidence of the factors influencing ingestion that can be used to inform future studies on exposure and hazard of microplastics to fish

Presence and abundance of microplastics in the Thames River Basin, UK

The global increase in plastic production has led to growing concern about the environmental impacts of plastics and their degradation products. Microplastics have been extensively observed and studied in the marine environment but little is known about their presence and abundance in freshwater environments. Although rivers are recognised as a significant source of microplastics to the oceans, they are seldom considered in studies of the environmental presence of microplastics and there are no data reported to date on microplastics in UK rivers (or indeed any freshwater bodies). This study aimed to identify and quantify the abundance and types of plastics in the Thames Basin where population densities and sewage inputs are well described. Ten sampling sites on the River Thames and its tributaries were selected, ranging from densely populated, urban areas to sparsely populated, rural areas. Sites are all downstream of sewage treatment works (STWs) serving known populations, allowing correlation between population density with plastic types and abundances found. In addition samples were collected from sites at known distances downstream of STW outfalls, as well as the effluent itself, to try and establish the proportion of plastics directly entering from STWs, and its fate and transport pathways. River sediment and water samples were collected at all sites. Sediment samples were initially searched by eye, followed by flotation and overflowing using ZnCl2 solution. Plastics collected from the sediments were subsequently identified by Raman spectroscopy. Initial observations indicate that coloured and manmade particles are obviously visible in sediments from sites with high population densities compared to few evident manmade particles in sediments from areas with low population densities. Further analysis will allow for correlation of the plastic types and abundance with population density and sewage inputs to understand the distribution of plastics in river systems

A temporal sediment record of microplastics in an urban lake, London, UK

A radionuclide-dated (210Pb and 137Cs) sediment core collected from Hampstead Pond No. 1, a North London lake, was used to provide novel data on the historical accumulation of microplastic waste in the urban environment. Microplastics were extracted from sediments by sieving and dense-liquid separation. Fibres of anthropogenic origin dominated the assemblage. Microplastics were first identified by microscopy before Raman spectroscopy of selected particles was used to determine the composition of synthetic polymers and dyes. Polystyrene microplastic particles were identified, in addition to synthetic fibres of polyacrylonitrile, polyvinyl chloride and fibres containing synthetic dyes. Concentrations of total microplastics in the sediment samples ranged from detection level to 539 particles per kilogram of dried sediment. Proliferation of microplastics is evident in the core from the late 1950s to the present. Relatively low numbers of particles were found in older sediments, comparable to laboratory blanks, highlighting the difficulty of extending a plastic chronostratigraphy back to the early twentieth century. This study shows that, with optimisation, routine extraction of microplastics from radionuclide-dated lake sediments can add an important temporal perspective to our understanding of microplastics in aquatic systems

Microplastics in commercial marine fish species in the UK – A case study in the River Thames and the River Stour (East Anglia) estuaries

The aim of this study was to assess the abundance of microplastics in the gastro-intestinal tracts of three commercially important fish species in the UK, to determine whether catch location, feeding habits and fish size influence the amount of microplastics within fish. Fish were collected from two rivers in the UK: the River Thames and the River Stour (East Anglia). Fish were collected from two sites in the River Thames and one site in the River Stour. Species selected were European flounder (Platichthys flesus), whiting (Merlangius merlangus), and Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), and were chosen to represent benthic and pelagic feeding habits. Across all locations, 41.5 % of fish had ingested at least one microplastic particle (37.5 % of European flounder, 52.2 % of whiting, and 28.6 % of Atlantic herring). The average number by species was 1.98 (±3.50) microplastics/fish in European flounder, 2.46 (±3.10) microplastics/fish in whiting and 1.47 (±3.17) microplastics/fish in herring. There were no significant differences in the number or mass of microplastics in fish based on river, site, species or habitat. However, the number and mass of microplastics within benthic fish (European flounder) in the River Stour were significantly higher than in benthic fish from the River Thames. By number of microplastics, larger and heavier fish were more highly contaminated. This study enhances our understanding of microplastics in commercially important fish but highlights that fish contamination is not easily predicted by feeding habits or catch location alone. Exposure and uptake is likely to vary with changing environmental conditions. Fish size tends to be a good predictor of contamination, with larger fish generally containing more microplastics. This is the first study to directly compare concentrations of microplastics in fish from different UK rivers and the first evidence of microplastics in the River Stour

Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research priorities

Plastic debris is an environmentally persistent and complex contaminant of increasing concern. Understanding the sources, abundance and composition of microplastics present in the environment is a huge challenge due to the fact that hundreds of millions of tonnes of plastic material is manufactured for societal use annually, some of which is released to the environment. The majority of microplastics research to date has focussed on the marine environment. Although freshwater and terrestrial environments are recognised as origins and transport pathways of plastics to the oceans, there is still a comparative lack of knowledge about these environmental compartments. It is highly likely that microplastics will accumulate within continental environments, especially in areas of high anthropogenic influence such as agricultural or urban areas. This review critically evaluates the current literature on the presence, behaviour and fate of microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments and, where appropriate, also draws on relevant studies from other fields including nanotechnology, agriculture and waste management. Furthermore, we evaluate the relevant biological and chemical information from the substantial body of marine microplastic literature, determining the applicability and comparability of this data to freshwater and terrestrial systems. With the evidence presented, the authors have set out the current state of the knowledge, and identified the key gaps. These include the volume and composition of microplastics entering the environment, behaviour and fate of microplastics under a variety of environmental conditions and how characteristics of microplastics influence their toxicity. Given the technical challenges surrounding microplastics research, it is especially important that future studies develop standardised techniques to allow for comparability of data. The identification of these research needs will help inform the design of future studies, to determine both the extent and potential ecological impacts of microplastic pollution in freshwater and terrestrial environments

Acute toxicity of organic pesticides to Daphnia magna is unchanged by co-exposure to polystyrene microplastics

Daphnia magna were exposed to two pesticides in the presence or absence of microplastics (300 000 particles ml−1 1 µm polystyrene spheres) and to microplastics alone. The pesticides were dimethoate, an organophosphate insecticide with a low log Kow, and deltamethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide with a high log Kow. Daphnia were exposed to a nominal concentration range of 0.15, 0.31, 0.63, 1.25, 2.5, 5 mg l−1 dimethoate and 0.016, 0.08, 0.4, 2, 5 and 10 µg l−1 deltamethrin. Exposure to polystyrene microplastics alone showed no effects on Daphnia magna survival and mobility over a 72 h exposure. In the dimethoate exposures, mobility and survival were both affected from a concentration of 1.25 mg l−1, with effects were seen on mobility from 28 h and survival from 48 h, with greater effects seen with increasing concentration and exposure time. In deltamethrin exposures, survival was affected from a concentration of 0.4 µg l−1 and mobility from a concentration of 0.08 µg l−1. Effects of deltamethrin on mobility were seen from 5 h and on survival from 28 h, with greater effects on survival and mobility seen with increasing concentration and exposure time. Contrary to expectations, pesticide toxicity to Daphnia magna was not affected by the presence of microplastics, regardless of chemical binding affinity (log Kow). This therefore suggests that polystyrene microplastics are unlikely to act as a significant sink, nor as a vector for increased uptake of pesticides by aquatic organisms

Ingestion of microplastics by the chironomid Chironomus sancticaroli and effects on the microbiome in the presence of PBDEs

Microplastic particles in the environment can associate with persistent organic pollutants (POPs) due to the hydrophobic nature of plastics and organic chemicals. PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) are widely used as flame-retardants in products such as textiles and soft furnishings, with the potential to leach into the environment and be associated with microplastics. If ingested, the gut environment of an organism may favour desorption of adsorbed chemicals due to gut condition. Therefore the ingestion of microplastic particles has implications for uptake and bioaccumulation of these chemicals. Furthermore the presence of microplastics and chemicals in the gut of an organism can also influence the gut environment itself. Gut microbiomes are known to hold a vital role in host metabolism, nutrition and immunity and as such understanding the influence of chemicals and microplastics on the gut microbiota is key

A large-scale investigation of microplastic contamination: abundance and characteristics of microplastics in European beach sediment

Here we present the large-scale distribution of microplastic contamination in beach sediment across Europe. Sediment samples were collected from 23 locations across 13 countries by citizen scientists, and analysed using a standard operating procedure. We found significant variability in the concentrations of microplastics, ranging from 72 ± 24 to 1512 ± 187 microplastics per kg of dry sediment, with high variability within sampling locations. Three hotspots of microplastic accumulation (> 700 microplastics per kg of dry sediment) were found. There was limited variability in the physico-chemical characteristics of the plastics across sampling locations. The majority of the microplastics were fibrous, < 1 mm in size, and blue/black in colour. In addition, using Raman spectrometry we identified particles as polyester, polyethylene, and polypropylene. Our research is the first large spatial-scale analysis of microplastics on European beaches giving insights into the nature and extent of the microplastic challenge