Poison in the Wine? Tracing Gats-Minus Commitments in Regional Trade Agreements

Commitments in regional trade agreements (RTAs) that fall short of the same countries' obligations under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) are a relatively frequent phenomenon. However, they have gone widely unnoticed in the literature to date and drawn very little attention in relevant WTO fora either. Nevertheless, 'minus commitments' are potentially poisonous and, for various reasons, would deserve close attention. Given the broad definitional scope of the GATS, extending inter alia to commercial presence, such commitments may impinge upon the rights of third-country investors in the RTA economies. Their existence casts doubts on the legal status of the respective agreements under the GATS and can have severe implications for the trading system overall. If not complemented by comprehensive Most-favoured-Nation clauses, the RTAs concerned are disconnected from the WTO and virtually impossible to multilateralize. Based on a review of some 80,000 commitments in 66 agreements, this study seeks to develop a reasonably comprehensive picture of the frequency of 'minus commitments' and their dosage in terms of sectors, measures and modes of supply. It also discusses potential remedies from a WTO perspective

Avenue d’Ouchy 51. Logements à Lausanne (VD)

Claire se réveilla tôt, accompagnée par les bruits du jardin. Son copain, lui, dormait encore à poings fermés. La partie de poker, la veille à leur étage, avait dû se finir tard. Arrivée dans la salle-à-manger, elle put apercevoir, à travers la fenêtre de la cuisine, les oiseaux qui l’avaient tirée de son sommeil. Un toast brûlant à la main, elle devinait maintenant entre les maisons et les arbres la pointe azurée du lac en ce chaud samedi d’été. Tandis qu’elle partait, une apparition de lumière dans l’imposte lui indiqua que l’appartement se réveillait tranquillement. «Quel parfum !» se dit-elle ironiquement en passant le seuil de sa porte. L’odeur de tabac des joueurs d’hier n’avait pas encore quitté les lieux malgré les fenêtres toujours ouvertes. Tout en enfilant ses chaussures, elle pouvait entendre l’écho du grand escalier. Elle se pencha vers le deuxième étage et observa les deux enfants qui y jouaient. «Bonjour Claire». Anne, du premier, sortait à l’instant et la salua d’un ton enjoué. Un déjeuner sur le perron s’annonçait. Mais Claire n’avait pas le temps. Elle regrettait par moment d’avoir accepté ce travail. Elle aurait donné cher pour se poser un instant au jardin. En achevant de descendre les escaliers, elle déboula dans le hall d’entrée. «08:07 déjà!» Elle releva rapidement le courrier, et à grandes enjambés, traversa la cour, puis la route et s’engouffra en trombe dans le métro. Inspiré de Charles-Ferdinand Ramuz, Les circonstances de la vie (1906)

The impact of hydrogen peroxide supply on LPMO activity and overall saccharification efficiency of a commercial cellulase cocktail

Background: The discovery of enzymes named lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) has had a major impact on the efficiency of current commercial cellulase cocktails for saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass. However, the notion that LPMOs use molecular oxygen as a co-substrate and require two externally delivered electrons per catalytic cycle poses a challenge in the development of efficient large-scale industrial processes. Building on the recent discovery that H2O2, rather than O-2, is the co-substrate of LPMOs, we show here how cellulose degradation by the LPMO-containing commercial cellulase cocktail-Cellic (R) CTec2 can be controlled and boosted by supplying the reaction with H2O2. Results: The controlled supply of anaerobic hydrolysis reactions with H2O2 and sub-stoichiometric amounts of reductant increased apparent LPMO activity by almost two orders of magnitude compared to standard aerobic reactions utilizing O-2 and stoichiometric amounts of reductant. Improved LPMO activity was correlated with enhanced saccharification rates and yields for a model cellulosic substrate (Avicel) as well as industrial lignocellulosic substrates (sulfite-pulped Norway spruce and steam-exploded birch), although the magnitude of the effects was substrate dependent. Improvements in lignocellulose conversions were achieved at low H2O2 feeding rates (in the range of 90-600 mu M h(-1)). Tight control of LPMO reactions by controlled supply of H2O2 under anaerobic conditions was possible. Conclusion: We report saccharification rates and yields for a model substrate (Avicel) and industrial lignocellulosic substrates that, at low H2O2 feeding rates, are higher than those seen under standard aerobic conditions. In an industrial setting, controlling and supplying molecular oxygen and stoichiometric amounts of reductant are challenging. The present report shows that the use of small amounts of a liquid bulk chemical, H2O2, provides an alternative to the currently available processes, which likely is cheaper and more easy to control, while giving higher product yields

MOESM1 of The impact of hydrogen peroxide supply on LPMO activity and overall saccharification efficiency of a commercial cellulase cocktail

Additional file 1. The impact of hydrogen peroxide supply on LPMO activity and overall saccharification efficiency of a commercial cellulase cocktail. Figure S1. Stability of Glc4gemGlc and its impact on the results presented in this paper. Figure S2. Degradation of Glc4gemGlc during incubation under conditions similar to those during biomass saccharification in bioreactors