Biofuels in Spain: Market penetration analysis and competitiveness in the automotive fuel market

For several years the European Union (E.U.) has been promoting the use of biofuels due to their potential benefits such as the reduction of dependence on foreign energy imports (the raw materials can be produced within the E.U.), the more stable fossil fuel prices (they can replace fossil fuels on the market), the greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction (biofuels’ raw materials fix CO2 from the atmosphere) and the fact that they can represent an additional source of income for the primary sector (biofuels’ raw materials are vegetables that can be grown and harvested). Despite the public aids (direct and indirect), biofuels are not competitive with fossil fuels at present, but it is possible that in the future the environment conditions change and biofuels might become competitive. It is difficult to assess whether this will happen or not, but it is possible to make an assessment of a future situation. This article presents two analyses with one objective: to determine if biofuels might become competitive in the future. The first analysis examines the dependencies of two quotations which have a strong relationship with fuels: the crude oil quotation and the CO2 bond quotation. The analysis of these relationships may help to forecast the future competitiveness of biofuels. For instance, biofuels’ future competitiveness will be higher if their raw material costs are not related to crude oil quotations or if they are related in a negative way (the higher the crude oil quotations the lower the raw material biofuels’ cost). The second analysis focuses on the market penetration of biofuels in the Spanish market. There are data related to biofuels monthly consumption in Spain since 2007 and it is possible to know if biofuels are gaining market quota since the

La alternativa factible a los combustibles fósiles en España: El hidrógeno

La Unión Europea ha apostado por los biocombustibles como sustitutos de los combustibles fósiles. El presente artículo analiza si es posible emplear, desde los puntos de vista técnico, económico y medioambiental, el hidrógeno como combustible alternativo a los combustibles fósiles y a los biocombustibles, teniendo en cuenta además que el hidrógeno, salvo que se genere a partir de biomasa, no se considera biocombustibles según la orden ITC/2877/2008, de 9 de octubre y por lo tanto no cuenta con los beneficios fiscales que tienen éstos

Análisis de la competitividad y la penetración de los biocombustibles en el mercado de combustibles para automoción en España.

En la actualidad, los biocombustibles no son rentables, ya que son más caros que sus equivalentes de origen fósiles. Por esto cabe preguntarse si pueden serlo en el futuro. Para ello se propone analizar las relaciones de diversas cotizaciones de los biocombustibles y de los combustibles fósiles con la cotización del petróleo y la de los bonos de CO2. En principio, es deseable que las cotizaciones relacionadas con los biocombustibles bien no estén relacionadas o tengan una relación negativa con las cotizaciones de los combustibles fósiles

Critical analysis of the European Union directive which regulates the use of biofuels: An approach to the Spanish case

In recent times, the global debate on the environment has been centered on CO2 emissions. This gas is the major cause of the “greenhouse effect” and people are more concerned with the idea that the emissions of this gas should be minimized. As a result of this concern, the Kyoto Protocol was enacted and subscribed to by many countries, setting the maximum gas emissions for them. Fossil fuels are a major source of CO2 emissions. For some years now The European Union has been seeking to promote some years now the use of biofuels as substitutes for diesel or petrol for transport purposes. As a result of this policy, in 2003 the European Union (EU) Directive 2003/30/EC [1] was developed with the aim of promoting the use of biofuels as a substitute for diesel or gasoline among European Union countries as well as to contribute to fulfilling the commitments acquired on climate change, security of supply in environmentally friendly conditions and the promotion of renewable energy sources. In order to achieve these goals, the directive forces all EU members to ensure that before December 31 of 2010 at least 5.75% of all gasoline and diesel fuels sold for transport purposes are biofuels. European Union countries have social and economic characteristics unique to themselves. The energy dependence on foreign sources, the features of the agricultural sector or the degree of industrialization varies greatly from one country to another. In this context, it is questionable whether the obligation imposed by this directive is actually achieving in its application uniform and/or identical goals in each of the countries involved and whether the actions of the various governments are also aligned with these goals. All these ideas were developed in a previous report (Sobrino and Monroy (2009) [2]). This report examines the possibility of using hydrogen as an alternative to fossil fuels and biofuels from a technical, economic and environmental point of view in the specific case of a European Union country: Spain

Análisis técnico, económico y medioambiental de los potenciales sustitutos de los hidrocarburos en el mercado español de los combustibles para automoción

El uso de biocombustibles tendría, potencialmente, múltiples ventajas. Podrían ayudar a reducir la dependencia energética del petróleo ya que la materia prima de la cual proceden puede obtenerse de forma interna. Esta reducción llevaría consigo también una mejora de la balanza de pagos y provocaría un aumento de la seguridad interna en cuanto a la producción energética. Adicionalmente, los biocombustibles pueden contribuir a minimizar un aumento del precio del petróleo al reducir su demanda y, por otra parte, podría provocar un aumento de la demanda de productos agrícolas, lo que impulsaría los ingresos de los agricultores. Desde el punto de vista medioambiental, la materia prima de los biocombustibles son vegetales que, en su crecimiento, fijan en forma de carbono una parte del dióxido de carbono que se encuentra en la atmósfera, lo que favorece el cumplimiento de compromisos internacionales ya adquiridos como el Protocolo de Kioto. Como consecuencia de todas estas potenciales ventajas, la Unión Europea elaboró la directiva 2003/30/EC para regular el uso de biocombustibles. Esta directiva marca un objetivo de consumo de biocombustibles en todos los países de la Unión para finales de 2010. Con el objetivo de cumplir con dicho objetivo, los gobiernos están fomentando el uso de biocombustibles como es el caso de España, donde se les ha eximido del pago del impuesto especial sobre hidrocarburos. El CIEMAT ha desarrollado dos modelos completos de análisis de ciclo de vida de los biocombustibles frente a los combustibles fósiles, cuyos resultados son favorables a los primeros. Con toda esta información cabe hacerse muchas preguntas: Las ventajas potenciales de los biocombustibles frente a los combustibles fósiles… ¿Realmente son ventajas? Las acciones llevadas a cabo para incentivar su uso ¿Están haciendo que los biocombustibles ganen cuota de mercado? ¿Son ahora competitivos los biocombustibles? En el caso de que no lo sean ¿Hay indicios de que lo serán en el futuro? Los análisis de ciclo de vida realizados por el CIEMAT ¿Son suficientemente completos? ¿Cabe resquicio a la crítica? ¿Puede llevarse a cabo un nuevo modelo de análisis de ciclo de vida que mejore y elimine los posibles inconvenientes del primero? La directiva europea 2003/30/EC ¿Realmente ha alineado sus objetivos con la directriz que impone a los estados miembros? En el caso de que los biocombustibles no sean un buen producto para sustituir a los combustibles fósiles ¿Existen otras alternativas rentables? Con el fin de dar respuesta a estas preguntas y a otras más, se ha llevado a cabo la presente tesis doctoral que consta de las siguientes partes: Un estudio técnico y económico de los biocombustibles en donde se hace un análisis exhaustivo del estado actual de los mismos en términos de competitividad en el mercado y de grado de penetración. Un análisis crítico de los modelos de ciclo de vida desarrollados por el CIEMAT y una propuesta de un nuevo modelo que solventa los inconvenientes de los primeros. Un análisis crítico de la directiva europea 2003/30/EC para el fomento del uso de los biocombustibles a través de una de las iniciativas que se están llevando a cabo para la producción de etanol para corroborar si la obligación impuesta por la directiva está alineada con los objetivos de la misma. Un análisis de las posibilidades futuras de los biocombustibles, analizando las relaciones existentes entre las diferentes variables que los pueden hacer más o menos competitivos. Un estudio de otro posible sustituto para los combustibles fósiles: el hidrógeno. En este caso se analizan las posibilidades técnicas y económicas de este combustible en el caso de que sea obtenido por electrolisis de agua de mar mediante una central eléctrica dedicada. Abstract Biofuels have characteristics that are beneficial in principle. Their use is advantageous compared to fossil fuels: They may reduce the external energy dependence; they could be produced domestically in the EU, reducing petroleum imports, improving the balance of payments, improving domestic energy security, and reducing the reliance on petroleum from unstable areas of the world. Biofuels may help to stabilize fossil fuel prices. Petroleum prices are volatile and expected to increase over time. However, biofuels are a backstop technology, potentially constraining the growth in petroleum prices. Biofuels may help to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) and other emissions. Biofuels recycle carbon from the atmosphere and have cleaner emissions, thus reducing GHG emissions and mitigating climate change. Biofuels may be an additional source of income for the primary sector. Biofuels are renewable and increase the demand for agricultural commodities, thus potentially boosting agricultural producers’ income and prices. As a result of this policy, in 2003 the European Union (EU) Directive 2003/30/EC was developed with the aim of promoting the use of biofuels as a substitute for diesel or gasoline among European Union countries as well as to contribute to fulfilling the commitments acquired on climate change, security of supply in environmentally friendly conditions and the promotion of renewable energy sources. In order to achieve these goals, the directive forces all EU members to ensure that before December 31 of 2010 at least 5.75% of all gasoline and diesel fuels sold for transport purposes are biofuels. In order to achieve this goal, governments are encouraging the use of biofuels. The CIEMAT has developed two life cycle analysis of biofuels versus fossil fuels (for Otto and Diesel engines) where the results show that biofuels are favourable to fossil fuels. At this point many questions arise: The potential benefits of biofuels... Are they really benefits? Related to the actions taken to encourage the use of biofuels… Are these actions helping biofuels to gain market share? Are biofuels competitive now? In the event that they are not… Are there indications that they will be competitive in future? Life cycle analysis models developed by CIEMAT… Are they comprehensive enough? Is there room for criticism? Is it possible to develop a new model of life cycle analysis to surpass these models? 2003/30/EC European directive… Are its objectives aligned with the obligation imposed? In case that biofuels are not so good products to substitute fossil fuels… Are there alternatives? To answer these questions, the following sections have been developed: A technical and economic study of biofuels in which an exhaustive analysis of their current status in terms of competitiveness and market penetration. A critical analysis of life cycle models developed by CIEMAT and a proposal for a new model that solves the disadvantages of the CIEMAT’s models. A critical analysis of the European Directive 2003/30/EC. For this analysis, a case study related to the waste citric is done. Two different applications are compared using the new life cycle model An analysis of the future competitiveness of biofuels. An analysis of the relations of different variables is done to try to find out if they will be more or less competitive in future. A study of hydrogen as substitute for fossil fuels: A technical and economic discussion of this fuel when it is obtained by seawater electrolysis thorough a dedicated power plant

Energy- and environmentally efficient road management: The case of the Spanish motorway network

Transport is responsible for 41% of CO2 emissions in Spain, and around 65% of that figure is due to road traffic. Tolled motorways are currently managed according to economic criteria: minimizing operational costs and maximizing revenues from tolls. Within this framework, this paper develops a new methodology for managing motorways based on a target of maximum energy efficiency. It includes technological and demand-driven policies, which are applied to two case studies. Various conclusions emerge from this study. One is, that the use of intelligent payment systems is recommended; and another, is that the most sustainable policy would involve defining the most efficient strategy for each motorway section, including the maximum use of its capacity, the toll level which attracts the most vehicles, and the optimum speed limit for each type of vehicle

Critical analysis of the European Union directive which regulates the use of biofuels: An approach to the Spanish case.

For more than a decade we have lived in a period where the so-called “sustainability” is crucial and is motivated primarily by the social awareness of achieving a balance between human development and the conservation of the environment. This philosophy has a direct and inevitable impact on business and politics. Governments have long since been developing standards and encouraging various diverse initiatives whose aim is to defend the environment. In recent times, the global debate on the environment has been centred on CO2 emissions. This gas is the major cause of the “greenhouse effect” and people are more concerned with the idea that the emissions of this gas should be minimized. As a result of this concern, the Kyoto Protocol was enacted and subscribed to by many countries, setting the maximum gas emissions for them. Fossil fuels are a major source of CO2 emissions. In 2003 the European Union (EU) directive 2003/30/EC [2003/30/EC Directive of the European Parliament and the Council—8th may 2003. On the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport] was developed with the aim of promoting the use of biofuels as a substitute for diesel or petrol among European Union countries as well as to contribute to fulfilling the commitments on climate change, security of supply in environmentally friendly conditions and the promotion of renewable energy sources. In order to achieve these goals, the directive forces all EU members to ensure that at least 5.75% of all petrol and diesel fuels sold for transport purposes are biofuels before December 31 of 2010. European Union countries have social and economic characteristics unique to themselves. The energy dependence from foreign sources, the features of the agricultural sector or the degree of industrialization varies greatly from one country to another. In this context, it is questionable whether the obligation imposed by this directive applies to achieve uniform and/or identical goals in each of the countries involved and whether the actions of the various governments are also aligned with these goals

EXPERIMENTAL AND COMPUTATIONAL STUDY ON THE BUBBLE BEHAVIOR IN A 3-D FLUIDIZED BED WITH A VERTICAL-AXIS, ROTATING DISTRIBUTOR

This work presents experimental measurements in a three-dimensional fluidized bed equipped with a novel vertical-axis, rotating distributor, together with two-fluid (Eulerian-Eulerian) CFD simulation results. The influence of the distributor rotation on the behavior of the bubbles in the experiments and in the CFD results is compared and critically analyzed

Decarbonization of toll plazas: impact assessment of toll collection system management

Transport climate change impacts have become a worldwide concern. The use of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) could contribute to a more effective use of resources in toll road networks. Management of toll plazas is central to the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as it is there that bottlenecks and congestion occur. This study focuses on management strategies aimed at reducing climate change impacts of toll plazas by managing toll collection systems. These strategies are based on the use of different collection system technologies – Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) and Open Road Tolling (ORT) – and on queue management. The carbon footprint of various toll plazas is determined by a proposed integrated methodology which estimates the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of the different operational stages at toll plazas (deceleration, service time, acceleration, and queuing) for the different toll collection systems. To validate the methodology, two main-line toll plazas of a Spanish toll highway were evaluated. The findings reveal that the application of new technologies to toll collection systems is an effective management strategy from an environmental point of view. The case studies revealed that ORT systems lead to savings of up to 70% of CO2 emissions at toll plazas, while ETC systems save 20% comparing to the manual ones. Furthermore, queue management can offer a 16% emissions savings when queue time is reduced by 116 seconds. The integrated methodology provides an efficient environmental management tool for toll plazas. The use of new technologies is the future of the decarbonization of toll plazas

Las minas de mercurio de Almadén de 1939 a 1960. Estrategias de producción, modernización, y su repercusión en los obreros y la población

Almadén means in Arabic the mine, its population has always lived from and for the mine, and in the 1940s and 1950s also because of its 10,000 inhabitants, 2,500 were miners. In this article about Almaden, the largest mercury deposit in the world, three stages of its long history are contemplated: the postwar period (1939-1945), the autarky (1945-1950) and the so-called hinge decade (1950-1960), analyzing the socioeconomic context, the means of production in the underground workings and in the furnaces, the safety and health of workers, the surrounding environment, their labor relations and the international quotation of mercury in this period, allows us to know its evolution and modernization between 1939 and 1960.This article intends to contribute to the knowledge of this period so little studied in the history of Almadén, since most of the research carried out in recent years they concern the Modern Age. In addition, the Almadén case study will certainly contribute to the knowledge of industrial and mining policy in Spain in the 20th century.; Almadén significa en árabe la mina, así que su población ha vivido siempre de y para la mina, y en las décadas de 1940 y 1950 también, pues de sus 10.000 habitantes, 2.500 eran mineros. En este artículo sobre Almadén, el mayor yacimiento de mercurio del mundo, se contemplan tres etapas de su larga historia: la posguerra (1939-1945), la autarquía (1945-1950) y el llamado decenio bisagra (1950-1960), analizando el contexto socioeconómico, los medios de producción en las labores subterráneas y en los hornos, la mano de obra libre y obligada (en la posguerra), la salud y seguridad de los operarios, el medio ambiente del entorno y las relaciones laborales. Todo ello, unido a la cotización internacional del mercurio en dicho periodo, nos permite conocer la evolución y modernización del establecimiento minero de Almadén entre 1939 y 1960.Este artículo pretende contribuir así al conocimiento de esta época tan poco estudiada en la historia de Almadén, ya que la mayor parte de las investigaciones llevadas a cabo en los últimos años conciernen a la Edad Moderna. Además, el estudio del caso de Almadén contribuirá sin duda al conocimiento de la política industrial y minera en la España en el siglo XX