Symbiont Diversity of Zooxanthellae (Symbiodinium Spp.) In Porities Astreoides and Montastraea Cavernosa from a Reciprocal Transplant in the Lower Florida Keys

In recent years, coral reefs worldwide have suffered high mortality rates due to coral bleaching, a phenomenon contributing to a 40% decrease in coral cover in the Florida Keys since the 1997/98 El Niño event. In the Florida Keys, coral from inshore reefs are known to be more thermotolerant than their conspecifics from offshore reefs but the mechanism behind this difference is unclear. In this study we conducted a two-year, reciprocal transplant of Porites astreoides and Montastraea cavernosa from an inshore and offshore reef in the lower Florida Keys to determine if changes in the dominant symbiotic algae (Symbiodinium spp.) could explain variation in holobiont tolerance as well as to assess the possibility of acclimatization to a changing stress regime. Increased complexity and diversity was demonstrated in the composition of Symbiodinium spp. from both coral species collected at the offshore reef when compared to conspecifics collected inshore. As a result of this complexity, the offshore reef samples displayed higher numbers of transitions of zooxanthellae subclade types between seasons, while inshore fragments demonstrated more stability and may explain previously measured thermotolerance. Additionally, the known thermotolerant subclade type D1 was associated with one M. cavernosa fragment from the inshore reef. When fragments were transplanted, compositional patterns of Symbiodinium spp. were retained from site of collection, indicating a lack of acclimatization to a new environment over the lengthy two-year experiment. These results demonstrate variability in the dominant Symbiodinium spp. of P. astreoides and M. cavernosa conspecifics from inshore and offshore reefs in the lower Florida Keys and point to possible patterns in holobiont thermotolerance. This variability may be key to the continued persistence of these species in the face of climate change, but future studies are needed to determine the mechanisms and range in which these subclade types withstand thermal stress

Extreme enrichment in atmospheric 15N15N.

Molecular nitrogen (N2) comprises three-quarters of Earth's atmosphere and significant portions of other planetary atmospheres. We report a 19 per mil (‰) excess of 15N15N in air relative to a random distribution of nitrogen isotopes, an enrichment that is 10 times larger than what isotopic equilibration in the atmosphere allows. Biological experiments show that the main sources and sinks of N2 yield much smaller proportions of 15N15N in N2. Electrical discharge experiments, however, establish 15N15N excesses of up to +23‰. We argue that 15N15N accumulates in the atmosphere because of gas-phase chemistry in the thermosphere (>100 km altitude) on time scales comparable to those of biological cycling. The atmospheric 15N15N excess therefore reflects a planetary-scale balance of biogeochemical and atmospheric nitrogen chemistry, one that may also exist on other planets

Development of Gene Expression Markers of Acute Heat-Light Stress in Reef-Building Corals of the Genus Porites

Coral reefs are declining worldwide due to increased incidence of climate-induced coral bleaching, which will have widespread biodiversity and economic impacts. A simple method to measure the sub-bleaching level of heat-light stress experienced by corals would greatly inform reef management practices by making it possible to assess the distribution of bleaching risks among individual reef sites. Gene expression analysis based on quantitative PCR (qPCR) can be used as a diagnostic tool to determine coral condition in situ. We evaluated the expression of 13 candidate genes during heat-light stress in a common Caribbean coral Porites astreoides, and observed strong and consistent changes in gene expression in two independent experiments. Furthermore, we found that the apparent return to baseline expression levels during a recovery phase was rapid, despite visible signs of colony bleaching. We show that the response to acute heat-light stress in P. astreoides can be monitored by measuring the difference in expression of only two genes: Hsp16 and actin. We demonstrate that this assay discriminates between corals sampled from two field sites experiencing different temperatures. We also show that the assay is applicable to an Indo-Pacific congener, P. lobata, and therefore could potentially be used to diagnose acute heat-light stress on coral reefs worldwide

Variation in Immune-Related Gene Expression Provides Evidence of Local Adaptation in Porites astreoides (Lamarck, 1816) between Inshore and Offshore Meta-Populations Inhabiting the Lower Florida Reef Tract, USA

Coral communities of the Florida Reef Tract (FRT) have changed dramatically over the past 30 years. Coral cover throughout the FRT is disproportionately distributed; >70% of total coral cover is found within the inshore patch reef zone (<2 km from shore) compared to 30% found within the offshore bank reef zone (>5 km from shore). Coral mortality from disease has been differentially observed between inshore and offshore reefs along the FRT. Therefore, differences between the response of inshore and offshore coral populations to bacterial challenge may contribute to differences in coral cover. We examined immune system activation in Porites astreoides (Lamarck, 1816), a species common in both inshore and offshore reef environments in the FRT. Colonies from a representative inshore and offshore site were reciprocally transplanted and the expression of three genes monitored biannually for two years (two summer and two winter periods). Variation in the expression of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit H (eIF3H), an indicator of cellular stress in Porites astreoides, did not follow annual patterns of seawater temperatures (SWT) indicating the contribution of other stressors (e.g., irradiance). Greater expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor associated factor 3 (TRAF3), a signaling protein of the inflammatory response, was observed among corals transplanted to, or located within the offshore environment indicating that an increased immune response is associated with offshore coral more so than the inshore coral (p < 0.001). Corals collected from the offshore site also upregulated the expression of adenylyl cyclase associated protein 2 (ACAP2), increases which are associated with decreasing innate immune system inflammatory responses, indicating a counteractive response to increased stimulation of the innate immune system. Activation of the innate immune system is a metabolically costly survival strategy. Among the two reefs studied, the offshore population had a smaller mean colony size and decreased colony abundance compared to the inshore site. This correlation suggests that tradeoffs may exist between the activation of the innate immune system and survival and growth. Consequently, immune system activation may contribute to coral community dynamics and declines along the FRT

Variation in immune-related gene expression provides evidence of local adaptation in Porites astreoides (Lamarck, 1816) between inshore and offshore meta-populations inhabiting the lower Florida Reef Tract, USA

© The Author(s), 2021. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Haslun, J. A., Hauff-Salas, B., Strychar, K. B., Cervino, J. M., & Ostrom, N. E. Variation in immune-related gene expression provides evidence of local adaptation in Porites astreoides (Lamarck, 1816) between inshore and offshore meta-populations inhabiting the lower Florida Reef Tract, USA. Water, 13(15), (2021): 2107, https://doi.org/10.3390/w13152107.Coral communities of the Florida Reef Tract (FRT) have changed dramatically over the past 30 years. Coral cover throughout the FRT is disproportionately distributed; >70% of total coral cover is found within the inshore patch reef zone (5 km from shore). Coral mortality from disease has been differentially observed between inshore and offshore reefs along the FRT. Therefore, differences between the response of inshore and offshore coral populations to bacterial challenge may contribute to differences in coral cover. We examined immune system activation in Porites astreoides (Lamarck, 1816), a species common in both inshore and offshore reef environments in the FRT. Colonies from a representative inshore and offshore site were reciprocally transplanted and the expression of three genes monitored biannually for two years (two summer and two winter periods). Variation in the expression of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit H (eIF3H), an indicator of cellular stress in Porites astreoides, did not follow annual patterns of seawater temperatures (SWT) indicating the contribution of other stressors (e.g., irradiance). Greater expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor associated factor 3 (TRAF3), a signaling protein of the inflammatory response, was observed among corals transplanted to, or located within the offshore environment indicating that an increased immune response is associated with offshore coral more so than the inshore coral (p < 0.001). Corals collected from the offshore site also upregulated the expression of adenylyl cyclase associated protein 2 (ACAP2), increases which are associated with decreasing innate immune system inflammatory responses, indicating a counteractive response to increased stimulation of the innate immune system. Activation of the innate immune system is a metabolically costly survival strategy. Among the two reefs studied, the offshore population had a smaller mean colony size and decreased colony abundance compared to the inshore site. This correlation suggests that tradeoffs may exist between the activation of the innate immune system and survival and growth. Consequently, immune system activation may contribute to coral community dynamics and declines along the FRT.We thank the Annis Water Resources Institute for both a graduate fellowship and research funding associated with this project, and Grand Valley State University for a Presidential Research Grant. We thank Michigan State University RTSF and the Integrative Biology Department at Michigan State University (Graduate Fellowship), and the Coastal Preservation Network (Award 250542). We also thank Erich Bartels and the Mote Marine Tropical Research Laboratory staff for their help with field and laboratory help and Jeff Landgraf for qRT-PCR help. This work could not have been completed without the help of the staff at Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) for providing permit number FKNMS-2011-10 allowing this research to take place

Coral Bleaching Susceptibility Is Decreased following Short-Term (1–3 Year) Prior Temperature Exposure and Evolutionary History

Coral exposed to short periods of temperature stress (≥1.0°C above mean monthly maximum) and/or increased frequencies of high temperatures may bolster resilience to global warming associated with climate change. We compared Montastraea cavernosa (Linnaeus, 1767; Cnidaria, Scleractinia, Faviidae) from the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) and the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary (FGBNMS). Thermal stress has been reported frequently within the FKNMS; however, corals in the FGBNMS experience nominal exposures to similar stressors. Corals were exposed to three temperatures (27°C, 31°C, and 35°C) for 72 h. Colonies from the FKNMS lost significantly fewer viable and necrotic zooxanthellae under conditions of acute stress (35°C) than the FGBNMS colonies. This indicates that the FKNMS corals are less temperature-sensitive than those in the FGBNMS. The observed differences point to greater prior temperature exposure and adaptation in the former versus the latter site when correlated to previous years of thermal exposure

Decreased photosynthetic efficiency in response to site translocation and elevated temperature is mitigated with LPS exposure in Porites astreoides symbionts

© The Author(s), 2022. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Harman, T. E., Hauff-Salas, B., Haslun, J. A., Cervino, J. M., & Strychar, K. B. Decreased photosynthetic efficiency in response to site translocation and elevated temperature is mitigated with LPS exposure in Porites astreoides symbionts. Water, 14(3), (2022): 366, https://doi.org/10.3390/w14030366.Coral reefs have been detrimentally impacted causing health issues due to elevated ocean temperatures as a result of increased greenhouse gases. Extreme temperatures have also exacerbated coral diseases in tropical reef environments. Numerous studies have outlined the impacts of thermal stress and disease on coral organisms, as well as understanding the influence of site-based characteristics on coral physiology. However, few have discussed the interaction of all three. Laboratory out-planting restoration projects have been of importance throughout impacted areas such as the Caribbean and southern Florida in order to increase coral cover in these areas. This study analyzes photosynthetic efficiency of Porites astreoides from the lower Florida Keys after a two-year reciprocal transplant study at inshore (Birthday reef) and offshore (Acer24 reef) sites to understand acclimation capacity of this species. Laboratory experiments subjected these colonies to one of three treatments: control conditions, increases in temperature, and increases in temperature plus exposure to an immune stimulant (lipopolysaccharide (LPS)) to determine their influence on photosynthetic efficiency and how stress events impact these measurements. In addition, this study is a continuation of previous studies from this group. Here, we aim to understand if these results are static or if an acclimation capacity could be found. Overall, we observed site-specific influences from the Acer24 reef site, which had significant decreases in photosynthetic efficiencies in 32 °C treatments compared to Birthday reef colonies. We suggest that high irradiance and lack of an annual recovery period from the Acer24 site exposes these colonies to significant photoinhibition. In addition, we observed significant increases in photosynthetic efficiencies from LPS exposure. We suggest host-derived antioxidants can mitigate the negative impacts of increased thermal stress. Further research is required to understand the full complexity of host immunity and symbiont photosynthetic interactions.We thank the Annis Water Resources Institute for both a graduate fellowship and research funding associated with this project, and Grand Valley State University for a Presidential Research Grant. We also thank Michigan State University RTSF and the Integrative Biology Department at Michigan State University (Graduate Fellowship), and the Coastal Preservation Network (Award 250542) for additional funding opportunities

Summary of statistical output of zooxanthellae gene expression using BirthdayBirthday as a reference factor.

<p>Summary of statistical output of zooxanthellae gene expression using BirthdayBirthday as a reference factor.</p

By-gene plot of transcript abundance for zooxanthellae genes obtained from sub-samples of <i>Porites</i> astreoides taken from Birthday reef and Acer24 reef during winter and summer sampling efforts.

<p>“AcerAcer” represents non-transplanted sub-samples that originated at Acer24 reef, whereas “AcerBirthday” represents transplanted sub-samples that were collected at Acer24 reef and transplanted to Birthday reef. “BirthdayBirthday” represents non-transplanted sub-samples that originated at Birthday reef, whereas “BirthdayAcer” represents transplanted sub-samples that were collected at Birthday reef and transplanted to Acer24 reef. Sub-samples collected in summer months are represented in orange, while sub-samples collected in winter months are represented in blue. Whiskers denote 95% credible intervals.</p