38 research outputs found
Inventory and analysis of tree injuries in a rockfall-damaged forest stand
Rockfall is a major threat to settlements and transportation routes in many places. Consequently, the protective function of mountain forests has recently gained particular interest. However, much is still unknown about the ideal properties of protective forest stands. Therefore the present paper discusses a method for the inventory and analysis of tree injuries in a rockfall-damaged forest stand. With this method, the interrelation between stand geometry and rockfall injuries in a subalpine Polygalo chamaebuxi-Piceetum was examined. The study site of 0.3Ha is located in the transit zone of frequently passing, small rockfall fragments (~10cm in diameter) causing healable tree injuries. Tree and injury parameters were recorded and analysed as to injury number, height and size. The spatial distribution of the 157 trees (diameter at breast height dbh>5cm) in the stand as well as of the 1,704 identified rockfall injuries showed a very uneven pattern. As expected, number, height and size of the injuries generally declined with increasing distance from the cliff as well as due to higher stem densities. In contrast, results indicated that the dbh of trees has no significant influence on the number of injuries per tree. However, this study showed a clear interrelation between tree and injury distribution: in general, large trees close to the cliff and smaller trees with a high density further down the slope seem to be favourable for good protection. At least an uneven-aged, multilayered stand should be sustained. Overall, the combined analysis of stand geometry and injury parameters provides information on the spatial distribution of rockfall and on the influence of tree arrangement
Spatio-temporal variations of rockfall activity into forests results from tree-ring and tree analysis
Steinschlag stellt einen der am hĂ€ufigsten in Gebirgsregionen auftretenden geomorphologischen Prozesse dar und wurde daher in der Vergangenheit ausgiebig studiert. Trotzdem bleiben detaillierte Kenntnisse zur Steinschlagfrequenz (wie hĂ€ufig), zu Steinschlagvolumen (wie gross), zu rĂ€umlichen Mustern (wo) oder zur Jahreszeitlichkeit (wann) der SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t die Ausnahme und Angaben zumeist nur sehr fragmentarisch. Ebenso wurden Jahrringanalysen bislang nur in wenigen Ausnahmen herangezogen, um die vergangene SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t zu untersuchen. Es ist daher das Ziel dieser Arbeit, (i) saisonale Unterschiede in der SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t festzulegen und (ii) rĂ€umlichzeitliche Variationen in der SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t mit dendrochronologischen Untersuchungen zu durchleuchten. Daneben wurden die vertikale Verteilung und die Sichtbarkeit von Steinschlagverletzungen auf der StammoberflĂ€che betrachtet, bevor StĂ€rken und SchwĂ€chen der Dendrochronologie im Bereich der Steinschlagforschung mit zahlreichen DatensĂ€tzen existierender Studien evaluiert wurden. In einer ersten Untersuchung wurden 270 Stammscheiben von 18 juvenilen LĂ€rchen (Larix decidua) aufbereitet, um saisonale Unterschiede in der SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t auf einem bewaldeten Hang im TĂ€schgufer (TĂ€sch, Schweizer Alpen) zu studieren. Basierend auf einem Ansatz, der bislang nur in der Waldbrandforschung zur Anwendung kam, wurde die Position von Kallusgewebe und traumatischer Harzkanalreihen innerhalb des Jahrrings bestimmt und daraus die Jahreszeitlichkeit der Ereignisse abgeleitet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen deutliche saisonale Unterschiede bezĂŒglich der SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t, wobei Verletzungen wĂ€hrend der Vegetationsperiode (Anfang Juni bis Mitte Oktober) eindeutig die Ausnahme bilden (12%). Im Gegensatz dazu können 88% der Verletzungen der winterlichen Wachstumspause zugeordnet werden, welche lokal von Mitte Oktober bis Ende Mai andauert. Direkte Beobachtungen am Hang bestĂ€tigen diese Resultate und deuten ĂŒberdies darauf hin, dass die AktivitĂ€t im April und Mai am ausgeprĂ€gtesten sein dĂŒrfte. WĂ€hrend dieser Periode nimmt die globale Sonneneinstrahlung am westexponierten Hang des TĂ€schgufer kontinuierlich zu und vermag so die Eislinsen aufzutauen, die durch das Gefrieren von Schmelzwasser in den Spalten und Rissen der Anrisszonen gebildet werden konnten. Im Gegensatz dazu scheint die SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t im TĂ€schgufer weder durch Sommergewitter noch durch anhaltende NiederschlĂ€ge im Herbst beeinflusst zu werden. In einer zweiten Untersuchung wurden im TĂ€schgufer an 135 stark verletzten LĂ€rchen 564 Bohrkerne gezogen, um langfristige VerĂ€nderungen in rĂ€umlichzeitlichen Steinschlagmustern festzustellen. Die Untersuchungen umfassten vier Jahrhunderte (1600-2002) und ermöglichten die jahrgenaue Rekonstruktion von 741 Wachstumsstörungen in der Form von Verletzungen, traumatischen Harzkanalreihen, Reaktionsholz oder abrupten WachstumsĂ€nderungen. RĂ€umliche Analysen zeigten klar auf, dass Steinschlag wĂ€hrend der letzten 400 Jahre immer wieder auftrat, wobei die BĂ€ume in der sĂŒdlichen HĂ€lfte des Hanges regelmĂ€ssiger von Steinschlag beeinflusst wurden, teils sogar mehr als einmal pro Jahrzehnt. Im Gegensatz dazu wurden die BĂ€ume in der nördlichen HĂ€lfte des Untersuchungsgebiets weniger hĂ€ufig durch Steinschlag gestört, was die Wiederkehrdauer zwischen zwei Steinschlagereignissen lokal auf mehr als 150 Jahre anwachsen liess. Des weiteren fĂ€llt auf, dass sich Steinschlag in der Vergangenheit vorab mittels kleinvolumiger aber hochfrequenter Ereignisse manifestierte. Die Ausnahme bildet das Jahr 1720, als durch ein grossvolumiges Ereignis der Waldrand im sĂŒdlichen Bereich des Hanges umgeschlagen und der Waldbestand weitestgehend eliminiert wurde. Der aufwachsende Wald hat sich im Anschluss an das Ereignis jedoch wieder erholt und konnte dadurch seine Schutzfunktion je lĂ€nger je besser wieder wahrnehmen, was sich unter anderem auch in einer Reduktion der rekonstruierten Steinschlagrate im SĂŒdsektor zwischen 1740 und 1990 um den Faktor 13 auswirkt. Danach wurden im Altdorfer Bannwald (Altdorf, Schweizer Voralpen) drei ausgewachsene BĂ€ume (Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica, Picea abies) gefĂ€llt und die vertikale Verteilung sowie die Sichtbarkeit von SteinschlagschĂ€den am Baum untersucht. FĂŒr die Analyse vergangener SchĂ€den wurden zwischen dem Stammanlauf und der Krone alle paar Zentimeter Stammscheiben gesĂ€gt, insgesamt 307. Aus den Resultaten der Untersuchung geht hervor, dass die Höhenverteilung der SchĂ€den in Zusammenhang stehen dĂŒrfte mit der Grösse der Steine und Blöcke, der Hangneigung und dem Waldbestand. Infolgedessen lassen sich SchĂ€den sowohl in BodennĂ€he wie auch auf ĂŒber neun Metern Höhe erkennen. Schliesslich wurden â basierend auf den Resultaten aus dem Altdorfer Bannwald â Schwachpunkte, Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Rekonstruktion von Steinschlagereignissen mit Jahrringanalysen unter die Lupe genommen. Die Untersuchung ging davon aus, dass SteinschlagschĂ€den sehr viel zufĂ€lliger auf verschiedene BĂ€ume verteilt sind und in sehr viel stĂ€rker variierenden Höhen auftreten als etwa Wunden, die durch das Auftreten von Fliessprozessen wie Ăberschwemmung, Nassschneelawine oder Murgang entstehen können. Nebst der vertikalen Verteilung der SchĂ€den wurde anhand bestehender Daten aus den Schweizer Voralpen und Alpen unter anderem auch der Anteil der von aussen sichtbaren SchĂ€den mit der Gesamtzahl der im Jahrringbild rekonstruierbaren Wunden verglichen. In Ă€hnlicher Weise wurde danach versucht, den Prozentsatz der Verletzungen festzulegen, der erfasst werden kann, falls anstelle des ganzen Baumes nur eine einzelne Stammscheibe untersucht wird. Die Resultate der Untersuchungen deuten darauf hin, dass der Prozentsatz âunsichtbarerâ SchĂ€den im wesentlichen von artspezifischen Borkeneigenschaften, jĂ€hrlichen Zuwachsraten, dem Baumalter und dem Baumdurchmesser sowie von der Grösse des Steinschlags abhĂ€ngen. Dies hat zur Folge, dass in einzelnen Baumarten nur 15% der SchĂ€den von aussen nicht mehr sichtbar sind, wĂ€hrend in anderen 90% nur mehr durch Jahrringanalysen festgestellt werden können. Das Studium einzelner Scheiben auf einer durch das Ă€ussere Erscheinungsbild des Stammes vorgegebenen âTesthöheâ zeigt zudem auf, dass mit nur einer Scheibe pro Baum im besten Fall 13 bis 35% aller Wunden erfasst werden können. Eine wesentliche Verbesserung der Resultate kann jedoch erreicht werden, wenn weitere Indikatoren fĂŒr die PrĂ€senz von vergangener SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t herangezogen werden, wie etwa Reaktionsholz, abrupte WachstumseinbrĂŒche oder â falls vorhanden â traumatische Harzkanalreihen. Zusammenfassend kann festgehalten werden, dass die vorliegende Arbeit Einblicke zu Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Jahrring-Steinschlag-Forschung schuf und umfassende Daten zur Jahreszeitlickeit, Frequenz und Magnitude der SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t sowie der Sichtbarkeit und vertikalen Verteilung von SteinschlagschĂ€den auf der StammoberflĂ€che lieferte. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit entwickelten Methoden konnten seither auf einem anderen Standort erfolgreich angewandt. Trotzdem sind weitere Untersuchungen zur Jahrring-Steinschlag-Forschung im Allgemeinen und zur vergangenen AktivitĂ€t im TĂ€schgufer im Speziellen unerlĂ€sslich, da die gewĂ€hlten Analysemethoden weiter ausgebaut und nicht zuletzt auch der Einfluss von Erdbeben oder Klimafluktuationen auf die SteinschlagaktivitĂ€t im Detail untersucht werden sollten.Rockfall represents one of the most common geomorphological processes in mountain regions and has extensively been studied in the past. Nonetheless, detailed data on frequencies (how often), volumes (how large), spatial distributions (where) or the seasonality (when) of rockfall activity remain scarce and most of the time fragmentary. Similarly, tree-ring analysis has only exceptionally been used to investigate past rockfall activity. It was therefore the aim of this study to (i) assess intra-annual differences in rockfall activity and (ii) to investigate spatial and decadal fluctuations of rockfall activity on forested slopes with dendrochronological analysis. Furthermore, the vertical distribution of scars was investigated and the visibility of scars determined, before other strengths and weaknesses of dendrochronology in rockfall research were evaluated with extensive datasets from existing studies. Firstly, 270 stem discs from 18 juvenile Larix decidua trees were prepared to study 25 years of intraseasonal differences in rockfall activity on a forested slope at TĂ€schgufer (TĂ€sch, Swiss Alps). Based on approaches used to date past forest fires, the position of callous tissue and resin ducts has been assessed within the tree ring as to determine the intra-seasonal timing of events. Results show distinct differences in rockfall activity, indicating that rockfall is scarce during the vegetation period (12%), which locally lasts from early June through mid October. In contrast, 88% of the impacts occur during the winter dormancy of trees between mid October and the end of May. Direct observations on the slope confirm the results, indicating that rockfall activity would be highest around April and May, when global insulation on the westfacing slope gradually rises and ice lenses formed from meltwater slowly disappear in the joints and fissures of the rockfall source areas. In contrast, rockfall seems to be neither influenced by thunderstorms in summer nor abundant rainfall in autumn. Secondly, 564 increment cores from 135 severely injured Larix decidua trees have been sampled at TĂ€schgufer to investigate long-term spatial and temporal variations of rockfall activity. The analysis covers four centuries (1600â2002) and allowed reconstruction of 741 growth disturbances such as scars, traumatic rows of resin ducts, reaction wood and abrupt growth changes. Spatial analysis clearly shows that evidence from past rockfall events can commonly be found in trees located in the southern part of the slope, where they recurred more than once per decade. In contrast, trees in the northern part were less frequently disturbed by rockfall and locally define recurrence intervals of more than 150 years. Throughout the last four centuries, rockfall has caused growth disturbances to the trees sampled on the slope, most frequently in the form of low magnitude-high frequency events. In addition, analysis allowed identification of one high magnitude-low frequency event in 1720, which displaced the forest fringe of the northern sector a considerable distance downslope and eliminated an entire forest stand. Data further show that the forest recolonizing the southern sector after the 1720 event gradually improved its protective function, reducing the rate of reconstructed rockfall activity by a factor of 13 between the 1740s and the 1990s. Thirdly, three adult trees (Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica, Picea abies) have been felled in the Altdorfer Bannwald (Altdorf, Swiss Prealps) as to investigate the height distribution and visibility of impacts (scars) on trees. Past impacts on trees were analyzed with 307 cross-sections taken every few centimeters between the stemâs base and its crown. Results demonstrate that impact heights of rockfall fragments on trees largely vary depending on the diameter of rockfall fragments, the slope gradient as well as the forest cover. As a consequence, scars were identified at heights ranging from almost 0 to more than 900 cm above ground. Lastly and based on the results obtained from the three adult trees gathered at Altdorfer Bannwald, methodological difficulties, possibilities and limits of tree-ring analysis in rockfall research have been investigated. The study has been based on the idea that â in contrast to other hazardous processes such as debris flows, floods or wet snow avalanches â scars caused by rockfall activity are more randomly distributed on trees and may occur at largely varying heights. As a consequence, data gathered from nine different datasets in the Swiss Alps and Prealps have been analyzed in order to determine inter alia the percentage of scars remaining visible on the stem surface. Similarly, the number of scars reconstructed on entire trees has been compared to the events identified on only one cross-section or a series of increment cores taken at the height with a maximum number of wounds (i.e. test height) visible on the stem. Data indicate that the amount of overgrown scars would much depend on the bark properties of the species, yearly increment rates, the age of the tree, tree diameter as well as the size of rockfall fragments, resulting in an amount of âblurred evidenceâ ranging from 15 to 90%. Analysis of single cross-sections at a given âtest heightâ indicates that, at best, 13 to 35% of the scars occurring on the entire tree can be detected. Data further suggest that the amount of events reconstructed at this âtest heightâ can be considerably improved as soon as other growth disturbances such as reaction wood, abrupt growth reductions or â if existing â traumatic rows of resin ducts are considered as well. In conclusion, new insights about possibilities and limitations of tree ring-rockfall research have been gained in this thesis and comprehensive data obtained on the seasonality, frequency or magnitude of rockfall activity as well as the vertical distribution and visibility of scars on stem surfaces. Replicate studies have since proved the general applicability of the approaches developed. Nonetheless, further research is needed in general and at TĂ€schgufer in particular, as there is potential for improvements and further research, namely on earthquake-rockfall or climate-rockfall interactions
Influence of storm damage on the runoff generation in two sub-catchments of the Sperbelgraben, Swiss Emmental
The project "Lothar and Mountain Torrentsâ investigates the effect of storm-originated deforestation on the hydrology on three scales within the Sperbelgraben catchment (Swiss Prealps). This article focuses on runoff measurements during a 3-year period in two differently affected sub-catchments (â2ha) and on 2-year surface runoff measurements on smaller plots (50-110m2). The link between these two scales and the results of irrigation experiments on 1m2 areas are interpreted using a detailed map of forest site types describing soil and vegetation characteristics. Plot results show that surface runoff is generated in two distinct ways. On the one hand, high amounts of saturation overland flow were observed on wet areas of gleyic soils. On the other hand, hardly any surface runoff was measured on Cambisols, with the exception of a short hydrophobic reaction at the beginning of storms occurring on areas with a thick organic litter layer (temporary Hortonian overland flow). On the long term, the lightly damaged sub-catchment (SC1) yields less runoff than the highly damaged one (SC2). This is confirmed when direct runoff volumes during flood events are considered. However, short and intensive showers surprisingly lead to higher discharge peaks in SC1. This occurrence is explained by different geomorphologic characteristics (mainly the channel density) and the spatial distribution of the moist to wet forest site types. Effects of deforestation and local soil compaction due to forest clearing remain small on both plot and sub-catchment scal
Spatial and temporal rockfall activity in a forest stand in the Swiss Prealps : a dendrogeomorphological case study
Rockfall is a major threat to settlements and transportation routes in large parts of the Alps. While protective forest stands in many locations undoubtedly reduce rockfall risk, little is known about the exact frequency and spatial distribution of rockfall activity in a given place or about how these parameters can be assessed. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to reconstruct rockfall events with dendrogeomorphological methods and to analyse the spatial and temporal rockfall activity in a subalpine forest stand. The study site is located in the transit zone of frequently passing, rather small rockfall fragments (mean diameter of 10 to 20 cm). In all, 33 stem discs from previously felled Picea abies trees found at the foot of Schwarzenberg in Diemtigtal (Swiss Prealps) were sampled, and a total number of 301 rockfall events were dated to between A.D. 1724 and 2002. Results showed that the spatial distribution of rockfall changed slightly with time, and that rockfall activity increased considerably over the last century. In contrast, rockfall magnitude presumably remained on a comparable level. The seasonal occurrence of rockfall showed a clear peak during the dormant season of trees, most probably in early spring. Furthermore, on a 10-year moving average basis, rockfall rates were positively correlated with mean annual as well as summer and winter temperatures. This means that higher temperatures resulted in increased rockfall activity. On the other hand, no correlation with annual or seasonal precipitation totals was revealed. Overall, this study provides an appropriate method for the detailed assessment of spatial and temporal variations in rockfall activity in a given place
Zur SensitivitÀt von Wildbachsystemen: Konzepte und erste Ergebnisse aus Untersuchungen in den Testgebieten Rothenbach (Schwarzsee) und Spissibach (Leissigen)
Torrents are very sensitive to changes in climatic and environmental conditions. In this paper,
the background and the basis of a project which analyses the hydrological and geomorphological processes in this type of watersheds are discussed. The two test areas, Spissibach at Leissigen (Berne) and Rotenbach at Schwarzsee (Freiburg), are described and first results of the hydrological and geomorphological investigations are presented: The significance of the storage conditions for flood generation are studied with the BROOK-model. The so-called topoindex of the TOPMODEL allows a physically significant spatial differentiation of the contribution areas