Reliable and Accountable System Design

Few would disagree with the assertion that safe engineering starts from the early stages of system design and should be maintained throughout the lifecycle. Different engineering domains have developed, mostly informal, frameworks with which they hope to promote this attitude. An interesting question for the KBS community is whether some of our methods for knowledge representation and reasoning can be used to assist in understanding, representing and interpreting such frameworks. This paper concentrates on what is (arguably) the area of greatest concern: relating system requirements to high level design. We highlight what appear to be the major difficulties which face us in this area, using examples from systems which have been built to tackle them.</jats:p

Children\u27s physical activity and screen time : qualitative comparison of views of parents of infants and preschool children

BackgroundWhile parents are central to the development of behaviours in their young children, little is known about how parents view their role in shaping physical activity and screen time behaviours.MethodsUsing an unstructured focus group design, parental views and practices around children&prime;s physical activity and screen time (television and computer use) were explored with eight groups of new parents (n=61; child age &lt;12 months) and eight groups of parents with preschool-aged (3&ndash;5 year old) children (n=36) in Melbourne, Australia.ResultsParents generally believed children are naturally active, which may preclude their engagement in strategies designed to increase physical activity. While parents across both age groups shared many overarching views concerning parenting for children&prime;s physical activity and screen time behaviours, some strategies and barriers differed depending on the age of the child. While most new parents were optimistic about their ability to positively influence their child&prime;s behaviours, many parents of preschool-aged children seemed more resigned to strategies that worked for them, even when aware such strategies may not be ideal.ConclusionsInterventions aiming to increase children&prime;s physical activity and decrease screen time may need to tailor strategies to the age group of the child and address parents&prime; misconceptions and barriers to optimum parenting in these domains.<br /

Associations between dietary intakes of first-time fathers and their 20-month-old children are moderated by fathers\u27 BMI, education and age

Children\u27s learning about food is considerable during their formative years, with parental influence being pivotal. Research has focused predominantly on maternal influences, with little known about the relationships between fathers\u27 and children\u27s diets. Greater understanding of this relationship is necessary for the design of appropriate interventions. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between the diets of fathers and their children and the moderating effects of fathers\u27 BMI, education and age on these associations. The diets of fathers and their first-born children (n 317) in the Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT) Program were assessed using an FFQ and 3&times;24-h recalls, respectively. The InFANT Program is a cluster-randomised controlled trial in the setting of first-time parents groups in Victoria, Australia. Associations between father and child fruit, vegetable, non-core food and non-core drink intakes were assessed using linear regression. The extent to which these associations were mediated by maternal intake was tested. Moderation of associations by paternal BMI, education and age was assessed. Positive associations were found between fathers\u27 and children\u27s intake of fruit, sweet snacks and take-away foods. Paternal BMI, education and age moderated the relationships found for the intakes of fruit (BMI), vegetables (age), savoury snacks (BMI and education) and take-away foods (BMI and education). Our findings suggest that associations exist at a young age and are moderated by paternal BMI, education and age. This study highlights the importance of fathers in modelling healthy diets for their children

Dietary associations of fathers and their children between the ages of 20 months and 5 years

OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between dietary intakes of fathers and their children at child age 20 months, 3&middot;5 years and 5 years, and to determine if fathers\u27 intake predicts change in children\u27s intake between 20 months and 3&middot;5 and 5 years of age. DESIGN: The diets of fathers and their first-born children participating in the longitudinal Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT) Program were assessed using FFQ and three 24 h recalls, respectively. SETTING: Sixty-two pre-existing first-time parent groups were selected from fourteen local government areas within a 60 km radius of Deakin University Burwood, Victoria, Australia. SUBJECTS: Fathers and their first-born children at 20 months (n 317), 3&middot;5 years (n 214) and 5 years of age (n 208). RESULTS: Positive associations were found between fathers\u27 and children\u27s intakes of fruit and sweet snacks at 20 months (P=0&middot;001) and 5 years of age (P=0&middot;012). Fathers\u27 intake at child age 20 months was associated with change in children\u27s intake for fruit, sweet snacks and sugar-sweetened beverages between child age 20 months and 3&middot;5 years, and for sweet snacks and sugar-sweetened beverages between child age 20 months and 5 years (all P&lt;0&middot;05). After adjustment for maternal intake, fathers\u27 intake of sweet snacks remained a predictor of change in children\u27s sweet snack intake between 20 months and 3&middot;5 years of age (P=0&middot;03). CONCLUSIONS: Associations between the dietary intakes of fathers and their children commence at a young age and continue through early childhood. Fathers should be included in future interventions aimed at improving children\u27s diets

Early childhood predictors of toddlers\u27 physical activity: longitudinal findings from the Melbourne InFANT program

Background:&nbsp;Young children are at risk of not meeting physical activity recommendations. Identifying factors from&nbsp;the first year of life which influence toddlers&rsquo; physical activity levels may help to develop targeted intervention&nbsp;strategies. The purpose of this study was to examine early childhood predictors of toddlers&rsquo; physical activity across&nbsp;the domains of maternal beliefs and behaviours, infant behaviours and the home environment.&nbsp;Methods: Data from 206 toddlers (53% male) participating in the Melbourne InFANT Program were collected in 2008&ndash;2010 and analysed in 2012. Mothers completed a survey of physical activity predictors when their child was 4- (T1) and&nbsp;9- months old (T2). Physical activity was assessed by ActiGraph GT1M accelerometers at 19- months (T3) of age.Results: One infant behaviour at T1 and one maternal belief and two infant behaviours at T2 showed associations with&nbsp;physical activity at T3 and were included in multivariate analyses. After adjusting for the age at which the child started&nbsp;walking and maternal education, the time spent with babies of a similar age at 4-months (&beta; = 0.06, 95% CI [0.02, 0.10])&nbsp;and the time spent being physically active with their mother at 9-months (&beta; = 0.06, 95% CI [0.01, 0.12]) predicted&nbsp;children&rsquo;s physical activity at 19-months of age.&nbsp;Conclusions: Promotion of peer-interactions and maternal-child co-participation in physical activity could serve as a&nbsp;health promotion strategy to increase physical activity in young children. Future research is required to identify other&nbsp;early life predictors not assessed in this study and to examine whether these factors predict physical activity in later life&nbsp;stages.</div

Tracking of maternal self-efficacy for limiting young children\u27s television viewing and associations with children\u27s television viewing time: a longitudinal analysis over 15-months

BACKGROUND: Mothers\u27 self-efficacy for limiting their children\u27s television viewing is an important correlate of this behaviour in young children. However, no studies have examined how maternal self-efficacy changes over time, which is potentially important during periods of rapid child development. This study examined tracking of maternal self-efficacy for limiting young children\u27s television viewing over 15-months and associations with children\u27s television viewing time. METHODS: In 2008 and 2010, mothers (n&thinsp;=&thinsp;404) from the Melbourne InFANT Program self-reported their self-efficacy for limiting their child\u27s television viewing at 4- and 19-months of age. Tertiles of self-efficacy were created at each time and categorised into: persistently high, persistently low, increasing or decreasing self-efficacy. Weighted kappa and multinomial logistic regression examined tracking and demographic and behavioural predictors of change in self-efficacy. A linear regression model examined associations between tracking categories and children\u27s television viewing time. RESULTS: Tracking of maternal self-efficacy for limiting children\u27s television viewing was low (kappa&thinsp;=&thinsp;0.23, p&thinsp;&lt;&thinsp;0.001). Mothers who had persistently high or increasing self-efficacy had children with lower television viewing time at 19-months (&beta;&thinsp;=&thinsp;-35.5; 95 % CI&thinsp;=&thinsp;-54.4,-16.6 and &beta;&thinsp;=&thinsp;37.0; 95 % CI&thinsp;=&thinsp;-54.4,-19.7, respectively). Mothers of children with difficult temperaments were less likely to have persistently high self-efficacy. Mothers who met adult physical activity guidelines had 2.5 greater odds of increasing self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions to increase and maintain maternal self-efficacy for limiting children\u27s television viewing time may result in lower rates of this behaviour amongst toddlers. Maternal and child characteristics may need to be considered when tailoring interventions

Prevalence and stability of active play, restricted movement and television viewing in infants

This study describes engagement in and stability of physical activity and sedentary behaviours in early life, and assesses associations with sex, maternal education and developmental stage. Maternal-report data at child age 4, 9 and 20 months were collected from 542 families in the Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial Program. Parents estimated average time per day their child spent in active pursuits or pursuits that restricted movement. With increasing age, children generally spent more time in active pursuits and watching television, and less time in situations that restrict movement. Associations were found with age of developmental milestone attainment but not sex or maternal education. Stability over time was strongest for television viewing (&beta; = 0.34&ndash;0.38) and time spent outdoors (&beta; = 0.27&ndash;0.33). Contrary to guidelines, television viewing increased and showed stability, suggesting a need to target this behaviour very early in life to achieve optimal longer term outcomes

Differences between mothers and fathers of young children in their Use of the internet to support healthy family lifestyle behaviors : Cross-sectional study

Background: In early life, both mothers and fathers are important influences on their children’s diet, active play, and obesity risk. Parents are increasingly relying on the internet and social media as a source of information on all aspects of parenting. However, little is known about the use of Web-based sources of information relevant to family lifestyle behaviors and, in particular, differences between mothers’ and fathers’ use and sociodemographic predictors. Objective: The objective of this study was to examine if mothers and fathers differ in their use of the internet for information on their own health and their child’s health, feeding, and playing and to examine sociodemographic predictors of the use of the internet for information on these topics. Methods: We conducted a secondary analysis on data collected from mothers (n=297) and fathers (n=207) participating in the extended Infant Feeding, Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT Extend) when their children were 36 months of age. The main outcome variables were the use of the internet for information gathering for parents’ own health and child health, feeding, and playing. Binary logistic regression was used to examine the sociodemographic predictors of outcomes. Results: Compared with fathers (n=296), a higher proportion of mothers (n=198) used the internet for information on their own health (230, 78.5% vs 93, 46.5%), child health (226, 77.1% vs 84, 42.4%), child feeding (136, 46.3% vs 35, 17.5%), and child play (123, 42.1% vs 28, 14.0%) and intended to use Facebook to connect with other parents (200, 74.9% vs 43, 30.5%). Despite the high use of the internet to support family health behaviors, only 15.9% (47/296) of mothers reported consulting health practitioners for advice and help for their own or their child’s weight, diet, or physical activity. Sociodemographic predictors of internet use differed between mothers and fathers and explained only a small proportion of the variance in internet use to support healthy family lifestyle behaviors. Conclusions: Our findings support the use of the internet and Facebook as an important potential avenue for reaching mothers with information relevant to their own health, child health, child diet, and active play. However, further research is required to understand the best avenues for engaging fathers with information on healthy family lifestyle behaviors to support this important role in their child’s life. Trial Registration: ISRCTN Registry ISRCTN81847050; http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN8184705

Not All Play Equipment Is Created Equal: Associations Between Equipment at Home and Children’s Physical Activity

Background: Play equipment at home could be targeted in interventions to increase children’s physical activity (PA), but evidence is mixed, potentially because current methods do not reflect children’s lived experience. This study investigated associations between combinations of equipment and PA. Methods: Data were from the Mothers and their Children’s Health study and the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health. Mothers (n = 2409) indicated the types of fixed active (eg, trampolines), portable active (eg, bicycles), and electronic (eg, computers) equipment at home, and the number of days children (n = 4092, aged 5–12 y, 51% boys) met PA guidelines. Latent class analysis was used to identify combinations of equipment, and linear regressions were used to investigate associations with PA. Results: Compared with children with high active (fixed and portable) and medium electronic equipment, children with portable active and medium (B = −0.53; 95% confidence interval, −0.72 to −0.34) or high (B = −0.58; 95% confidence interval, −0.83 to −0.33) electronic equipment met the guidelines on fewer days. Children with similar active equipment (but more electronic equipment) met the PA guidelines on fewer days (mean difference = −0.51, SE = 0.14, P = .002). Conclusion: Having the right combination of play equipment at home may be important for children’s PA