The invisible scissors: Media freedom and censorship in Switzerland

This thesis was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded by Brunel University.At first glance, the very idea of analysing the freedom of the media and of researching censorship in Switzerland seems absurd. After all, the Federal Constitution explicitly guarantees freedom of the media, and censorship is forbidden. Furthermore, this small, federal, multilingual and multicultural landlocked country in the middle of Europe is universally praised as a model of democracy. Indeed, in a country whose people have a far greater say in government than anywhere else, one could easily assume that the freedom of the media is a foregone conclusion. Yet, in reality, this shining image is more than a little tarnished. The "Prototype for Europe" – as the former Federal President of Germany Richard von Weizsäcker once described Switzerland – experiences the same forms and mechanisms of censorship as any other democratic country. Of course, in Switzerland "undesirable" journalists are not threatened with murder, but critically discerning authors do risk becoming social outcasts. Switzerland prohibits governmental pre-censorship, but the advertising industry has on occasion attempted to shape the content of the media by means of post-publication censorship in the form of boycotts. Switzerland is a constitutional state, yet the paragraphs of its penal and civil codes hang over media workers like the sword of Damocles. Then there are structural problems such as the lack of proper journalistic education. However one looks at it, the freedom of the media in Switzerland is officially, materially and structurally restricted. However, most people remain unconcerned by and indeed unaware of this state of affairs. Thomas Jefferson's reminder that, "to preserve the freedom of the human mind then and freedom of the press, every spirit should be ready to devote itself to martyrdom; for as long as we may think as we will, and speak as we think, the condition of man will proceed in improvement”*, has long been forgotten in Switzerland. The Swiss appear to be basking in their country’s reputation as a place without media problems. It therefore came as no surprise to us when, both in our quantitative and qualitative research, many of those interviewed were surprised and even irritated at our 2 questions about possible threats to freedom of the media in Switzerland. Some people even felt that they were being personally attacked and responded along the lines that "Instead of fouling our own nest we ought to describe the advantages of our country and our democratic system". Or: "In comparison with Russia or China we are living in a paradise": It seems that only the most critical among the media personnel, media experts and media scientists are willing to pinpoint the problems faced by the contemporary Swiss media. All the others are convinced that we have the best media on earth. This attitude of part indifference, part ignorance and part wishful thinking, was the catalyst for our research on the freedom of the Swiss media and the potential dangers and mechanisms which threaten it. Our findings reveal that all that glitters is not gold and that the Swiss media scene is, in some ways, reminiscent of a Potemkin village. *Jefferson, Thomas, Letter to William Green Mumford, 18 June 1799 (http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/quotes/jefferson.htm, consulted 15 June 2006

"Both/And" Instead of "Either/Or”: How Focusing on Goals at Different Levels of Abstraction Can Motivate Goal Pursuit

Concrete, challenging goals are powerful motivators and boost performance more than abstract goals (Locke & Latham, 2002, 2013). To illustrate, the concrete goal of “exercising on Wednesday evening for 60 minutes” should boost performance more than the abstract goal of “be healthy.” So far, research has mostly focused on concrete goals. While achieving concrete goals is seen as something positive, many of today’s social, environmental, and economic challenges require more than achieving a concrete goal. For example, exercising once does not lead to a healthy life; recycling glass bottles does not make you an environmentally friendly person. In these cases, a concrete goal—i.e., a subordinate goal—is only one of many steps that contribute to what people ultimately aspire to: an abstract, superordinate goal. Accordingly, successful goal pursuit requires not only the achievement of single steps, but also effort over the long term and across various situations, overcoming setbacks, resisting the pull of competing goals and temptations (Bonezzi, Brendl, & De Angelis, 2011; Fujita & MacGregor, 2012; Rothman, Baldwin, Hertel, & Fuglestad, 2004). In light of these challenges, focusing solely on a subordinate goal may not be the best solution (Ordóñez, Schweitzer, Galinsky, & Bazerman, 2009). An idea that might help overcome these difficulties is to focus additionally on superordinate goals. The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate possible benefits of superordinate goals (which have received less attention in research than subordinate goals), and to explore the idea that focusing on a combination of goals at different levels of abstraction fosters broad, long-term goal pursuit more than focusing on either a superordinate or subordinate goal alone. The dissertation consists of four papers that all adopt a goal-theoretical perspective to explore how superordinate goals and a combination of goals at different levels of abstraction influence goal pursuit in different contexts. Before presenting the four papers, I first provide a theoretical foundation on how goals differ in their level of abstraction, and how goals at different levels of abstraction are related to each other. Then I outline advantages and disadvantages of goals at different levels of abstraction for goal pursuit, focusing on the less well-known detrimental side effects of subordinate and beneficial effects of superordinate goals. I then argue that goals at different levels of abstraction are by no means mutually exclusive, but on the contrary are possibly most beneficial when combined. Finally, the four papers are briefly sketched and conclusions drawn about the whole dissertation project

Besteht ein Zusammenhang von Alkoholkonsum und sexuellem Risikoverhalten? Eine Diskussion konzeptioneller Aspekte am Beispiel HIV-infizierter Männer mit homosexuellem Verhalten

Zusammenfassung: Besteht ein Zusammenhang zwischen Alkoholkonsum und sexuellen Risikokontakten? Führt Alkohol zu Risikokontakten? Es lassen sich zahlreiche Studien finden, die diese Frage bejaht haben. Ebenso lassen sich Studien finden, die mit modifizierten Forschungskonzepten diese Befunde nicht bestätigen konnten. Unter Verwendung von ereignisunspezifischen und situationsspezifischen Konzepten wurden diese Fragen bei einer Stichprobe von 64 HIV-infizierten Männern mit homosexuellem Verhalten untersucht. Einen signifikanten Zusammenhang von Alkoholkonsum und sexuellem Risikoverhalten konnten wir mit dem ereignisun-spezifischen Ansatz nicht feststellen. Auch Personen, die sexuelle Kontakte unter Alkoholeinfluss eingegangen waren (situationsspezifisches Konzept), gingen nicht überdurchschnittlich häufiger Risikokontakte ein. Die Personen hingegen, die unter Alkoholkonsum riskante sexuelle Praktiken eingegangen waren, erreichen sowohl hinsichtlich des Alkoholkonsums als auch des allgemein erfassten Schutz- und Risikoverhaltens lediglich Durchschnittswerte. Erst konkrete Zusatzfragen machen es möglich, sie als Personen mit Risikoverhalten zu identifizieren. Für Untersuchungen zum sexuellen Schutz- und Risikoverhalten erscheint die Kombination sich ergänzender Forschungskonzepte zweckmässi

Outcomes of comprehensive fixed appliance orthodontic treatment: A systematic review with meta-analysis and methodological overview

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this systematic review was to assess the occlusal outcome and duration of fixed orthodontic therapy from clinical trials in humans with the Objective Grading System (OGS) proposed by the American Board of Orthodontics. METHODS: Nine databases were searched up to October 2016 for prospective/retrospective clinical trials assessing the outcomes of orthodontic therapy with fixed appliances. After duplicate study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment according to the Cochrane guidelines, random-effects meta-analyses of the mean OGS score and treatment duration were performed and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. RESULTS: A total of 34 relevant clinical trials including 6,207 patients (40% male, 60% female; average age, 18.4 years) were identified. The average OGS score after treatment was 27.9 points (95% CI, 25.3-30.6 points), while the average treatment duration was 24.9 months (95% CI, 24.6-25.1 months). There was no significant association between occlusal outcome and treatment duration, while considerable heterogeneity was identified. In addition, orthodontic treatment involving extraction of four premolars appeared to have an important effect on both outcomes and duration of treatment. Finally, only 10 (39%) of the identified studies matched compared groups by initial malocclusion severity, although meta-epidemiological evidence suggested that matching may have significantly influenced their results. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this systematic review suggest that the occlusal outcomes of fixed appliance treatment vary considerably, with no significant association between treatment outcomes and duration. Prospective matched clinical studies that use the OGS tool are needed to compare the effectiveness of orthodontic appliances

A geometrical model for Mixed cyanide crystals

A model of diluted random field sustained by quenched volume deformations is shown to reproduce puzzling physical features found in X(CN)_{x}Y_{1-x} mixed cyanide crystals. X is an alkali metal (K, Na or Rb) and Y is a spherical halogen ion (Br, Cl or I). Critical thresholds x_c at which associated first order ferroelastic transitions disappear are calculated exactly. The diluted random field is shown to compete with compressibility in making the transition first order. Transitions are then found to remain first order down to x_c except in the case of bromine dilution where they become continuous. All the results are in excellent agreement with available experimental data.Comment: 10 pages, late

α1,3Fucosyltransferase VI is expressed in HepG2 cells and codistributed with β1,4galactosyltransferase I in the Golgi apparatus and monensin-induced swollen vesicles

The major α1,3fucosyltransferase activity in plasma, liver, and kidney is related to fucosyltransferase VI which is encoded by the FUT6 gene. Here we demonstrate the presence of α1,3fucosyltransferase VI (α3-FucT VI) in the human HepG2 hepatoma cell line by specific activity assays, detection of transcripts, and the use of specific antibodies. First, FucT activity in HepG2 cell lysates was shown to prefer sialyl-N-acetyllactosamine as acceptor substrate indicating expression of α3-FucT VI. RT-PCR analysis further confirmed the exclusive presence of the α3-FucT VI transcripts among the five human α3-FucTs cloned to date. α3-FucT VI was colocalized with β1,4galactosyltransferase I (β4-GalT I) to the Golgi apparatus by dual confocal immunostaining. Pulse/chase analysis of metabolically labeled α3-FucT VI showed maturation of α3-FucT VI from the early 43 kDa form to the mature, endoglycosidase H-resistant form of 47 kDa which was detected after 2 h of chase. α3-FucT VI was released to the medium and accounted for 50% of overall cell-associated and released enzyme activity. Release occurred by proteolytical cleavage which produced a soluble form of 43 kDa. Monensin treatment segregated α3-FucT VI from the Golgi apparatus to swollen peripheral vesicles where it was colocalized with β4-GalT I while α2,6(N)sialyltransferase remained associated with the Golgi apparatus. Both constitutive secretion of α3-FucT VI and its monensin-induced relocation to vesicles analogous to β4-GalT I suggest a similar post-Golgi pathway of both α3-FucT VI and β4-GalT

The Role of Attitude Strength in Behavioral Spillover: Attitude Matters—But Not Necessarily as a Moderator

Studies on how one behavior affects subsequent behaviors find evidence for two opposite trends: Sometimes a first behavior increases the likelihood of engaging in additional behaviors that contribute to the same goal (positive behavioral spillover), and at other times a first behavior decreases this likelihood (negative spillover). A factor that may explain both patterns is attitude strength. A stronger (more favorable) attitude toward an issue may make the connections between related behaviors more salient and increase the motivation to work toward the underlying goal. We predicted that people with a stronger (more favorable) attitude are more likely to engage in subsequent behaviors that address an issue they care about. Two experiments tested the prediction in the contexts of pro-environmental and health behavior. Study 1 (N = 378) provided some support for the predicted moderating role of attitude toward the environment when participants recalled either an environmentally friendly or unfriendly action: A strong attitude increased the likelihood, whereas a weak attitude decreased the likelihood of carrying out successive goal-conducive behaviors. When compared to a neutral control condition in Study 2 (N = 929), participants with a weak environmental attitude supported pro-environmental petitions less strongly after an environmentally harmful action. Support for such petitions did not waver, however, among participants with a strong environmental attitude: They consistently acted environmentally friendly. Contrary to the hypothesis, in neither study did strength of attitude toward personal health moderate the effect of an initial behavior in the expected direction. In sum, the two studies provided only limited evidence for behavioral spillover: Participants mostly acted in accordance with their attitude but were hardly affected by recalling previous actions. When behavioral spillover did occur, however, a strong environmental attitude tended to increase the likelihood of acting in an environmentally friendly way, whereas the behavior of those with a weak attitude was less predictable. This research contributes to a more nuanced theoretical understanding of the role of attitude in spillover, but provides only limited evidence for its role as a moderator

Glassy freezing of orbital dynamics in FeCr2S4 and FeSc2S4

We report on a thorough dielectric investigation of the glass-like freezing of the orbital reorientation-dynamics, recently found for the crystalline sulpho-spinels FeCr2S4 and FeSc2S4. As the orbital reorientations are coupled to a rearrangement of the surrounding ionic lattice via the Jahn-Teller effect, the freezing of the orbital moments is revealed by a relaxational behaviour of the complex dielectric permittivity. Additional conductivity (both dc and ac) and contact contributions showing up in the spectra are taken into account by an equivalent circuit description. The orbital relaxation dynamics continuously slows down over six decades in time, before at the lowest temperatures the glass transition becomes suppressed by quantum tunnelling.Comment: J. Non-Cryst. Solids, in press. 6 pages, 4 figure

How Focusing on Superordinate Goals Motivates Broad, Long-Term Goal Pursuit: A Theoretical Perspective

Goal-setting theory states that challenging, specific, and concrete goals (i.e., subordinate goals) are powerful motivators and boost performance in goal pursuit more than vague or abstract goals (i.e., superordinate goals). Goal-setting theory predominantly focuses on single, short-term goals and less on broad, long-term challenges. This review article extends goal-setting theory and argues that superordinate goals also fulfill a crucial role in motivating behavior, particularly when addressing broad, long-term challenges. The purpose of this article is to shed light on the benefits of superordinate goals, which have received less attention in research, and to show theoretically that people pursue long-term goals more successfully when they focus on subordinate as well as superordinate goals than when they focus on either subordinate or superordinate goals alone