Background information about Avian Infl uenza and hints for ornithologists

Wildvögel, v.a. Wassergeflügel, sind Reservoir für alle Influenzaviren. Von wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung sind die Subtypen H5 und H7, während H1, H2 und H3 Erreger der Humangrippe sind. Diese niedrig pathogenen Vogelgrippeviren verursachen normalerweise bei infi zierten Vögeln keine klinischen Symptome. Nach Transfer niedrig pathogener Vogelgrippeviren in Geflügelhaltungen mit den daraus resultierenden, rasch aufeinander folgenden Virenzyklen durch rasche Vogelpassagen und sofortige Neuinfektion kann sich ein solches niedrig pathogenes Virus jedoch in ein hoch pathogenes Vogelgrippevirus (HPAI-Virus) umwandeln. Diese hoch pathogenen Viren können dann sowohl wieder über Wildvögel, als auch über Transport kontaminierter Vögel, Gefl ügelprodukte und Materialien sowie über Wasser weiterverbreitet werden. Der aktuelle, große Ausbruch der Gefl ügelgrippe geht auf den HPAI-Virus H5N1 zurück, der vermutlich in den späten 1990er Jahren in Hausenten in Südchina entstanden ist. Im Jahr 2005 begann diese Krankheit, sich von Südostasien aus westwärts zu verbreiten und trat damit als direkte Bedrohung für europäische Geflügelbestände in Erscheinung. Außerdem wurden einige wenige menschliche Fälle einer HPAI H5N1-Erkrankung aus Südostasien gemeldet. Alle diese menschlichen Erkrankungen standen mit sehr engen Kontakten zu oder Verspeisen von infizierten Tieren (vor allem Hühner, Enten und Schweine) in Verbindung und eine mögliche Mensch-zu-Mensch-Übertragung wird noch kontrovers diskutiert. Obwohl die Vogelgrippe nach wie vor eine Geflügelkrankheit ist, besteht die Möglichkeit, dass sich das Virus in seiner genetischen Struktur – z.B. durch Vermischung mit einem Humangrippevirus – so verändern kann, dass es leicht zwischen Menschen übertragen werden kann und bei diesen auf ein weitgehend unvorbereitetes Immunsystem trifft. Obwohl sich die Wahrscheinlichkeit einer solchen Veränderung nicht abschätzen lässt, liefern drei Pandemien im 20 Jahrhundert, die alle auf mutierte Vogelgrippeviren zurückzuführen sind, genug Anlass zur sorgfältigen Beobachtung der momentanen Lage.Waterfowl are known to be the major reservoir for all 16 H- and 9 N- Subtypes of low pathogenic avian infl uenza viruses (LPAIV), including the subtypes H5 and H7 being a serious economic threat to the poultry industry as well as H1, H2, H3 that are the main source for human infl uenza. LPAI neither cause any signs of disease in the infected wild birds nor in poultry. However, low pathogenic avian infl uenza virus of the subtypes H5 and H7 can be introduced into poultry holdings. Especially in industrial holdings with large numbers of highly susceptible animals, the previously stable viruses of low pathogenicity begin to evolve rapidly and may mutate into highly pathogenic avian infl uenza (HPAI) (known as fowl plague and also called „bird flu“) causing up to 100% mortatlity in infected birds. Aft erwards, infections of HPAI are usually spread by movement of stock, infectious feces, contaminated water or bird products. Free fl ying birds are usually also blamed to spread the disease, but this could be never proven to have happened. Since 1959 none of the outbreaks of HPAI has approached the size of the ongoing epizootic in Southeast Asia, which most probably originated in the late 1990 ies presumbly in captured ducks in Southern China and is caused by a new HPAI virus of the subtype H5N1. In 2005 the disease started to spread westwards and appears to be a threat for European poultry. Th e asian H5N1 cause serious public health concern for at least three reasons. Th ese AIV isolates can cause heavy economic losses in the poultry industry and through loss of poultry may exaggerate to human food protein defi cits in the developing world. In addition, they have the potential to cross the species barriers and cause human disease and death though only when connected to very close contacts with infected animals or raw consumption of infected birds (chicken, ducks). Last but not least there is the potential of the virus to change it‘s genetic structure – most probably by mixing with a human infl uenza virus (H1, H2, H3) that may achieve human-to-human spread by meeting the unprepared immune system of men resulting in a new human pandemia. Th ree pandemias during the 20 th century – all originating from HPAI viruses- emphasise the danger of the probability of H5N1 becoming the next pandemia virus

Analyse des Influenzastatus von Hausgeflügel in Freilandhaltung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Infektionsgefährdung durch Wildvögel

Wilde Wasservögel sind das natürliche Reservoir von Influenzaviren. Auch in Deutschland wurden in den letzten Jahren insbesondere in durchziehenden Wildenten Influenzaviren verschiedener Subtypen nachgewiesen, einschließlich der potentiellen Erreger der Geflügelpest H5 und H7. Bei Geflügelhaltungen mit Freilandauslauf besteht wegen möglicher Wildvogelkontakte ein erhöhtes Infektionsrisiko für das Wirtschaftsgeflügel, das untersucht werden sollte. In einer deutschlandweiten Stichprobe wurden insgesamt 486 Geflügelbetriebe mit Freilandauslauf auf das Vorkommen von aviären Influenzaviren getestet. Bei 2,9 % der 205 untersuchten Gänsebestände und bei 0,7 % der 143 Entenbestände wurde eine Influenzavirusinfektion nachgewiesen. Die 117 untersuchten Hühnerbestände sowie die 7 Putenbestände und 14 Hobbyhaltungen waren nicht infiziert. Die direkt oder über Antikörper nachgewiesenen Influenzaviren gehörten zu den Subtypen H3, H4, H6 und H12. Aus den angegebenen Daten der untersuchten Bestände zu Haltungs- und Hygieneparametern sowie zu möglichen und wirklich beobachteten Kontakten zu Wildvögeln wurde das spezifische Infektionsrisiko mittels eines Punktesystems eingestuft. Alle mit Influenzavirus infizierten Betriebe hatten ein mittleres Infektionsrisiko. Obwohl bei ca 10 % der Haltungen das Infektionsrisiko als sehr hoch eingestuft wurde, scheint die Ansteckung durch Wildvögel ein sehr seltenes Ereignis zu sein. Vermutet wird, dass es sich bei den in Ausläufen beobachteten Wildvögeln einschließlich der Wildenten um einheimische Standvögel handelte. Die saisonal in großer Zahl auftretenden Durchzügler nutzen Rastgebiete außerhalb der Ansiedlungen. Trotz der geringen Häufigkeit des Viruseintrages durch Wildvögel sollte zur Absicherung der gesamten Geflügelwirtschaft vor der Geflügelpest eine gesetzlich verankerte Überwachung der Geflügelhaltungen mit Freilandauslauf etabliert werden. Sie sollte zweimal jährlich nach dem Vogelzug erfolgen und besonders infektionsgefährdete Bestände umfassen

Pathogenicity of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus (H5N1) in Adult Mute Swans

Adult, healthy mute swans were experimentally infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/Cygnus cygnus/Germany/R65/2006 subtype H5N1. Immunologically naive birds died, whereas animals with preexisting, naturally acquired avian influenza virus–specific antibodies became infected asymptomatically and shed virus. Adult mute swans are highly susceptible, excrete virus, and can be clinically protected by preexposure immunity

Evidence-based African swine fever policies : do we address virus and host adequately?

African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most threatening diseases for the pig farming sector worldwide. Prevention, control and eradication remain a challenge, especially in the absence of an effective vaccine or cure and despite the relatively low contagiousness of this pathogen in contrast to Classical Swine Fever or Foot and Mouth disease, for example. Usually lethal in pigs and wild boar, this viral transboundary animal disease has the potential to significantly disrupt global trade and threaten food security. This paper outlines the importance of a disease-specific legal framework, based on the latest scientific evidence in order to improve ASF control. It compares the legal basis for ASF control in a number of pig-producing regions globally, considering diverse production systems, taking into account current scientific evidence in relation to ASF spread and control. We argue that blanket policies that do not take into account disease-relevant characteristics of a biological agent, nor the specifics under which the host species are kept, can hamper disease control efforts and may prove disproportionate.https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/veterinary-science#am2022Veterinary Tropical Disease

Chances and Limitations of Wild Bird Monitoring for the Avian Influenza Virus H5N1 — Detection of Pathogens Highly Mobile in Time and Space

Highly pathogenic influenza virus (HPAIV) H5N1 proved to be remarkably mobile in migratory bird populations where it has led to extensive outbreaks for which the true number of affected birds usually cannot be determined. For the evaluation of avian influenza monitoring and HPAIV early warning systems, we propose a time-series analysis that includes the estimation of confidence intervals for (i) the prevalence in outbreak situations or (ii) in the apparent absence of disease in time intervals for specified regional units. For the German outbreak regions in 2006 and 2007, the upper 95% confidence limit allowed the detection of prevalences below 1% only for certain time intervals. Although more than 25,000 birds were sampled in Germany per year, the upper 95% confidence limit did not fall below 5% in the outbreak regions for most of the time. The proposed analysis can be used to monitor water bodies and high risk areas, also as part of an early-warning system. Chances for an improved targeting of the monitoring system as part of a risk-based approach are discussed with the perspective of reducing sample sizes

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus (H5N1) in Frozen Duck Carcasses, Germany, 2007

Article summary line: Phylogenetic and epidemiologic evidence shows incursion of HPAIV into the food chain

Investigation into a Superspreading Event of the German 2020–2021 Avian Influenza Epidemic

Between November 2020 and May 2021, Germany faced the largest highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) epidemic recorded so far with 245 outbreaks in poultry and captive birds and more than 1000 diagnosed cases in wild birds. In March 2021, an HPAI outbreak of subtype H5N8 was confirmed in a holding rearing laying hens for sales. Disease introduction probably occurred via indirect contact with infected wild birds. Since the index farm sold chicken to customers including many smallholders, partly in travel trade, the primary outbreak triggered 105 known secondary outbreaks in five German federal states. An outbreak investigation was carried out with links between the involved farms retrieved from the German Animal Disease Notification System used for network analysis. In some cases, links were confirmed through sequence-based molecular analysis. Special emphasis was put on the estimation of the flock incubation period as a prerequisite of sound contact tracing. The unique circumstances of an outbreak farm with frequent direct trade contacts prior to disease suspicion enabled an assessment of the flock incubation period based on the consequences of contacts, further supported by molecular analysis and modeling of disease spread. In this case, the flock incubation period was at least 14 days

Longitudinal Study on Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-E. coli in Sentinel Mallard Ducks in an Important Baltic Stop-Over Site for Migratory Ducks in Germany

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a serious global health threat with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacterales as the most critical ones. Studies on AMR in wild birds imply a possible dissemination function and indicate their potential role as sentinel animals. This study aimed to gain a deeper insight into the AMR burden of wild waterfowl by sampling semi-wild mallard ducks used as sentinels and to identify if AMR bacteria could be recommended to be added to the pathogens of public health risks to be screened for. In total, 376 cloacal and pooled fecal samples were collected from the sentinel plant over a period of two years. Samples were screened for ESBL-carrying E. coli and isolates found further analyzed using antimicrobial susceptibility testing and whole-genome sequencing. Over the sampling period, 4.26% (16/376) of the samples were positive for ESBL-producing E. coli. BlaCTX-M-1 and blaCTX-M-32 were the most abundant CTX-M types. Although none of the top global sequence types (ST) could be detected, poultry-derived ST115 and non-poultry-related STs were found and could be followed over time. The current study revealed low cases of ESBL-producing E. coli in semi-wild mallard ducks, which proves the suitability of sentinel surveillance for AMR detection in water-associated wildlife