Rules of Immediate application.

“Rules of immediate application” or “Full-conflicts-mandatory rules” are one of the institutions restraining effect of conflict rules. “Rules of immediate application” are applied irrespectively of the law indicated by conflict rules. These rules should not be identified as mandatory rules, which imperativeness does not indicate a necessity of direct application. Therefore, for the sake of clarity and dissociation, these two types of rules should have different names. When determining applicable law, foreign rules of immediate application must be considered as well as forum rules of immediate application. This article provides a classification of mandatory rules, their theoretical background and extent of their direct application. Institution of rules of immediate application is dissociated from other rules that have similar purposes. Namely, the article analyses relations of the rules of immediate application with the public policy, evasion of the law and unilateral conflict rules. A possibility of immediate application of rules in positive conflict law of Lithuania was initially introduced in the new Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania passed in 2000. Respective rules of the Code are similar to those of 1980 Rome Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations. The similarity is not accidental. Lithuania aims to approximate its conflict law, especially concerning law applicable to contractual obligations, with rules established in the legal systems of the European Union countries. Thus respective rules of the Civil Code are construed according to commentaries of the above Rome Convention. Nevertheless, the article points out and analyses a number of essential differences between the regulation of the Civil Code and that of the Rome Convention.Tiesioginio taikymo normos yra vienas iš institutų, ribojančių kolizinių normų veikimą, nes jos taikomos neatsižvelgiant į kolizinių normų nurodomą teisę. Tokios normos negali būti tapatinamos su imperatyviomis normomis, kurių imperatyvumas pasireiškia tik jų reguliavimo būdu. Todėl šios dvi skirtingos teisės normų grupės aiškumo ir atribojimo tikslais vadintinos skirtingai. Sprendžiant taikytinos teisės problemą aktualios ne tik teismo valstybės, bet ir užsienio valstybės tiesioginio taikymo normos. Straipsnyje analizuojami tiesioginio teisės normų taikymo teoriniai pagrindai bei apimtis. Tiesioginio taikymo normos atribojamos nuo kitų kolizinės teisės specifinių normų, turinčių panašius tikslus. Analizuojamas tiesioginio taikymo normų santykis su viešosios tvarkos išlyga, su vienašalėmis kolizinėmis normomis ir normomis, draudžiančiomis apeiti įstatymus. Galimybė teisės normas taikyti tiesiogiai Lietuvos tarptautinėje privatinėje teisėje iš esmės pirmą kartą įtvirtinta naujajame 2000 m. Civiliniame kodekse. Atitinkamos Kodekso normos panašios į 1980 m. Romos konvencijos normas. Toks panašumas yra neatsitiktinis, nes Lietuva siekia suderinti savo kolizinę teisę, ypač sutartinėms prievolėms taikytinos teisės nustatymo reglamentavimą, su atitinkamu reguliavimu, įtvirtintu Europos Sąjungos valstybių teisės sistemoje. Todėl straipsnyje analizuojamos Lietuvos Respublikos civilinio kodekso atitinkamos normos lyginant jas su Romos konvencijoje esančiomis. Civilinio kodekso normos, perimtos iš Romos konvencijos, aiškinamos atsižvelgiant į pastarosios komentarus. Tačiau taip pat konstatuojami ir nagrinėjami dideli šių aktų tiesioginio taikymo normų reglamentavimo skirtumai. Straipsnyje aptariama specifinė tiesioginio taikymo normų padėtis, kai ginčas sprendžiamas ne nacionaliniame teisme, o komerciniame arbitraže

Phosphorylation acts positively and negatively to regulate MRTF-A subcellular localisation and activity

The myocardin-related transcription factors (MRTF-A and MRTF-B) regulate cytoskeletal genes through their partner transcription factor SRF. The MRTFs bind G-actin, and signal-regulated changes in cellular G-actin concentration control their nuclear accumulation. The MRTFs also undergo Rho- and ERK-dependent phosphorylation, but the function of MRTF phosphorylation, and the elements and signals involved in MRTF-A nuclear export are largely unexplored. We show that Rho-dependent MRTF-A phosphorylation reflects relief from an inhibitory function of nuclear actin. We map multiple sites of serum-induced phosphorylation, most of which are S/T-P motifs and show that S/T-P phosphorylation is required for transcriptional activation. ERK-mediated S98 phosphorylation inhibits assembly of G-actin complexes on the MRTF-A regulatory RPEL domain, promoting nuclear import. In contrast, S33 phosphorylation potentiates the activity of an autonomous Crm1-dependent N-terminal NES, which cooperates with five other NES elements to exclude MRTF-A from the nucleus. Phosphorylation thus plays positive and negative roles in the regulation of MRTF-A

Striated muscle activator of Rho signalling (STARS) is reduced in ageing human skeletal muscle and targeted by miR-628-5p

Aim: The striated muscle activator of Rho signalling (STARS) is a muscle-specific actin-binding protein. The STARS signalling pathway is activated by resistance exercise and is anticipated to play a role in signal mechan-otransduction. Animal studies have reported a negative regulation of STARS signalling with age, but such regulation has not been investigated in humans. Methods: Ten young (18–30 years) and 10 older (60–75 years) subjects completed an acute bout of resistance exercise. Gene and protein expres-sion of members of the STARS signalling pathway and miRNA expression of a subset of miRNAs, predicted or known to target members of STARS signalling pathway, were measured in muscle biopsies collected pre-exer-cise and 2 h post-exercise. Results: For the first time, we report a significant downregulation of the STARS protein in older subjects. However, there was no effect of age on the magnitude of STARS activation in response to an acute bout of exer-cise. Finally, we established that miR-628-5p, a miRNA regulated by age and exercise, binds to the STARS 3’UTR to directly downregulate its tran-scription. Conclusion: This study describes for the first time the resistance exercise-induced regulation of STARS signalling in skeletal muscle from older humans and identifies a new miRNA involved in the transcriptional con-trol of STARS

The law of the ship's flag in legal relation of carriage of goods by sea.

The law of the ship’s flag (lex flagi) is one of the well-known conflict rules. This specific conflict principle is applicable only to maritime legal relations, i.e. relations the element of which is a ship. The principle contains a rigid connecting factor, which imposes the obligation to apply the law of the state with whose flag the ship flies. International public law reveals the legal concept of the law of the flag. The benefits and applicability of the concept are assessed from the point of view of the private international law. Article deals with such lex flagi realization problems as flags of convenience, two flags on board etc. The author closely analyses the function of connecting legal relation and state performed under the conflict principle in order to identify applicable law. The accomplished analysis leads to a conclusion that the law of the flag coincides to a certain degree with another conflict rule, which connecting factor refers to the nationality of the ship’s owner or manager. Therefore the article discusses a possibility to substitute lex flagi by this particular conflict rule. The discourse is continued on the importance of the principle in question for contractual relations of carriage of goods by sea. Separate evaluations are made with regard to contracts of carriage of goods by sea and to voyage charter-party contracts. The conclusions refer to a trend of various countries to refuse to provide the principle as rigid conflict rule for carriage of goods by sea contracts. Nonetheless, the law of the flag is not completely inappropriate. It may be considered to be one of indicators of a close connection between the contract and the state when realizing another flexible conflict rule - the law of the closest connection. The analysis presented in the article facilitates a better understanding of the nature of the lex flagi principle and its function, which enables an appropriate application of the principle within the flexible context of conflict rules.Laivo vėliavos principas (lex flagi) yra vienas žinomesnių kolizinių principų. Dėl specifinės sąsajos formulės jis gali būti taikomas tik prekybinės laivybos santykiams, t. y. santykiams, kurių elementas yra laivas. Principas įkūnija griežtą sąsajos formulę, nurodančią taikyti teisę valstybės, su kurios vėliava laivas plaukia. Teisinę laivo vėliavos kategoriją atskleidžia tarptautinė viešoji teisė. Šios kategorijos naudingumas ir pritaikomumas tarptautinėje privatinėje teisėje vertinamas iš pastarosios pozicijų. Straipsnyje aptariamos šio principo įgyvendinimo problemos, pavyzdžiui, „patogių“ vėliavų bei „dvigubų“ vėliavų praktika. Išsamiai analizuojama šio principo atliekama santykio ir valstybės susiejimo funkcija taikytinos teisės nustatymo tikslais. Atlikta analizė leidžia daryti išvadą, kad laivo vėliavos principas iš dalies sutampa su kita galima kolizine sąsaja, darančia nuorodą į laivo savininko ar valdytojo nacionalinę priklausomybę. Galimybė pakeisti lex flagi grindžiama būtent tokia kolizine nuoroda. Autorius sprendžia nagrinėjamo principo aktualumą krovinių vežimo jūra sutartiniams santykiams. Jo reikšmė vertinama atskirai vežimo sutarčiai konosamento pagrindu ir reisinio čarterio sutarčiai. Daromos išvados atspindi tendenciją įvairiose valstybėse atsisakyti šio principo įtvirtinimo teisės normose, reguliuojančiose krovinio vežimo jūra sutartinius santykius. Tačiau laivo vėliavos kolizinis principas nėra bereikšmis. Jis gali būti vienas iš valstybės ir teisinio santykio glaudumo rodiklių, imtinų domėn įgyvendinant kitą, lankstų kolizinį principą – glaudžiausią ryšį turinčios valstybės teisės taikymo principą. Straipsnyje pateikta analizė leidžia geriau suvokti lex flagi principo prigimtį ir veikimo mechanizmą. Tai suteikia galimybę tinkamai įgyvendinti šį principą nepažeidžiant lanksčios kolizinės normos

J. Kvantas: pavyzdys K. Donelaičiui

The article aims to explore the life and activities of Johann Jakob Quandt. Quandt, a contemporary of Kristijonas Donelaitis, occupies a significant place in the historiography of Lithuanian culture and literature. Quandt was a prominent organiser of folk education in East Prussia and played the fundamental role in drawing up and publishing the major Lithuanian religious writings of the 18th century – the Bible and the hymnal. At Königsberg University, Quandt taught courses in homiletics and ethics. In the year that Donelaitis entered the University (1736), Quandt took up the top post of general superintendent imposing an obligation to supervise the land’s pastorate and schools. Quandt encouraged students and pastors to take interest in the history of their parishes. His sermons made Quandt more famous than his writings. It is easy to imagine how young Donelaitis must have admired the orator of this kind. Associations seek not only Donelaitis’ sermons, but also his belles-lettres. The assumption is confirmed that the Lithuanian poet used his works for sermons. Quandt’s attitude towards folk education in the mother tongue and specific efforts in this area nurtured patriotism of the land in young people. Drawing up the Bible in German, Quandt also took care of a Lithuanian one. His initiative resulted in a historic event in the evolution of Lithuanian writings. Besides the Bible, Quandt took care of Lithuanian writings promoting this book. Quandt’s work in Lithuanian writings must have impressed Donelaitis no less than his sermons. Consequently, Quandt’s educative activities became a common cultural phenomenon of neighbouring nations

SRF activation in immediate early gene transcription

The research described in this thesis was focused on the study of signalling pathways that lead to activation of serum response factor (SRF) and its target genes in response to diverse extracellular signals, such as serum, LPA, PDGF or TPA. SRF is able to bind to the serum response element (SRE) which is found in many, but not all immediate early gene promoters. At some promoters, like c-fos and egr-1, in conjunction with SRF, ternary complex factor (TCF) can bind to the SRE. TCF-dependent transcription is regulated by MAP kinases in response to growth factors or stress stimuli, while SRF activity is potentiated by RhoA-dependent signalling pathways in response to serum or LPA. In contrast to transiently transfected templates, an integrated SRF reporter gene is also activated by growth factors or the phorbol ester TPA. Using pharmacological inhibitors it is demonstrated that activation by growth factors and TPA was dependent on PI-3 kinase activity, while activation of SRF by serum and LPA was not. SRF activation by all stimuli was absolutely dependent on RhoA activity and largely independent of MEK activity. Cloning of LIMK, a regulator of the actin treadmilling cycle, as an SRF activator, suggested that actin dynamics are involved in regulating transcriptional activation. Studies with activators and inhibitors of actin polymerisation demonstrated that depletion of the cellular G-actin pool is necessary and sufficient for SRF activation. In contrast, alterations in actin dynamics are neither necessary nor sufficient for activation of TCF. Accordingly, activation of some SRF target genes, such as c-fos and egr-1, was actin and RhoA independent, but MAPK dependent. However, another group of genes, such as srf and vinculin, was actin and RhoA dependent, but largely independent of MEK-ERK signalling. Based on these findings, two classes of SRF target gene can be defined: one regulated by actin dynamics and a second by MEK-ERK signalling. It is proposed that two classes of SRF target gene are regulated in a mutually exclusive manner, and that the presence of TCF may control signalling specificity at SRF target promoters

Rules of immediate application

“Rules of immediate application” or “Full-conflicts-mandatory rules” are one of the institutions restraining effect of conflict rules. “Rules of immediate application” are applied irrespectively of the law indicated by conflict rules. These rules should not be identified as mandatory rules, which imperativeness does not indicate a necessity of direct application. Therefore, for the sake of clarity and dissociation, these two types of rules should have different names. When determining applicable law, foreign rules of immediate application must be considered as well as forum rules of immediate application. This article provides a classification of mandatory rules, their theoretical background and extent of their direct application. Institution of rules of immediate application is dissociated from other rules that have similar purposes. Namely, the article analyses relations of the rules of immediate application with the public policy, evasion of the law and unilateral conflict rules. A possibility of immediate application of rules in positive conflict law of Lithuania was initially introduced in the new Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania passed in 2000. Respective rules of the Code are similar to those of 1980 Rome Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations. The similarity is not accidental. Lithuania aims to approximate its conflict law, especially concerning law applicable to contractual obligations, with rules established in the legal systems of the European Union countries. Thus respective rules of the Civil Code are construed according to commentaries of the above Rome Convention. Nevertheless, the article points out and analyses a number of essential differences between the regulation of the Civil Code and that of the Rome Conventio

Law of the ship’s flag in legal relations of carriage of goods by sea

The law of the ship's flag (lex flagi) is one of the well-known conflict rules. This specific conflict principle is applicable only to maritime legal relations, i.e. relations the element of which is a ship. The principle contains a rigid connecting factor, which imposes the obligation to apply the law of the state with whose flag the ship flies. International public law reveals the legal concept of the law of the flag. The benefits and applicability of the concept are assessed from the point of view of the private international law. Article deals with such lex flagi realization problems as flags of convenience, two flags on board etc. The author closely analyses the function of connecting legal relation and state performed under the conflict principle in order to identify applicable law. The accomplished analysis leads to a conclusion that the law of the flag coincides to a certain degree with another conflict rule, which connecting factor refers to the nationality of the ship's owner or manager. Therefore the article discusses a possibility to substitute lex flagi by this particular conflict rule.The discourse is continued on the importance of the principle in question for contractual relations of carriage of goods by sea. Separate evaluations are made with regard to contracts of carriage of goods by sea and to voyage charter-party contracts. The conclusions refer to a trend of various countries to refuse to provide the principle as rigid conflict rule for carriage of goods by sea contracts. Nonetheless, the law of the flag is not completely inappropriate. It may be considered to be one of indicators of a close connection between the contract and the state when realizing another flexible conflict rule - the law of the closest connection. The analysis presented in the article facilitates a better understanding of the nature of the lex flagi principle and its function, which enables an appropriate application of the principle within the flexible context of conflict rule