BELIEVING FAKE NEWS

The proliferation of misinformation, inaccuracy in data processing, twisted scientific findings through the web and social media, in a word the proliferation of \u201cfake news\u201d have raised worries concerning their alleged impact on democratic processes. In this paper, I want to tackle this phenomenon by raising two questions. The first concerns what fake news is, or, to put it differently, whether it is a specific form compared to traditional public disinformation and deception. The second question addresses the issue of fake news from the viewpoint of the recipient or consumer, and asks on the basis of which cognitive traps and mechanisms cognizers end up believing fake news at a higher and faster rate than true news. In the first section of the paper I shall thus take up the discussion on what fake news is and see whether a specific account can be provided that mark it specifically off compared to traditional forms of public deception. In the second section of the paper, I shall try to map the cognitive and motivational traps making people victims of this form of disinformation and deception. Finally, in the third section, I shall take up the discussion about possible remedies, focusing on the ones directed at improving individual epistemic responses to fake news exposure. More precisely, I shall try to connect the literature on new media communications and the studies on the cognitive and motivational distortions in belief formation and see whether some hints for counteracting the effect of fake news can be found

Toleration as the Balance between Liberty and Security

Traditionally, an adequate strategy to deal with the tension between liberty and security has been toleration, for the latter allows the maximization of individual liberty without endangering security, since it embraces the limits set by the harm principle and the principle of self-defense of the liberal order. The area outside the boundary clearly requires repressive measures to protect the security and the rights of all. In this paper, we focus on the balance of liberty and security aforded by toleration, analyzing how this strategy works in highly confictual contexts and sorting out the diferent sets of reason that might motivate individual to assume a tolerant attitude. We contend that toleration represents a reliable political solution to conficts potentially threatening social security when it is coupled with social tolerance. Hence, we examine the reasons the agents may have for endorsing toleration despite disagreement and disapproval. In the range of these reasons, we argue that the right reasons are those preserving the moral and epistemic integrity of the agent. The right reasons are however not accessible to everyone, as for example is the case with (nonviolent) religious fundamentalists. Only prudential reasons for toleration seem to be available to them. And yet, we argue that an open and inclusive democracy should in principle be hospitable towards prudential and pragmatic reasons as well, which may potentially lay the grounds for future cooperation. We conclude therefore that the tolerant society has room for the fundamentalists, granted that they do not resort to violence

Measuring environmental policy stringency: Approaches, validity, and impact on environmental innovation and energy efficiency

Solid tests of the impact of environmental and energy policy on important economic outcomes, such as innovation, productivity, competitiveness and energy and carbon efficiency are impaired by the lack of appropriate empirical proxies for the commitment to, and stringency of, environmental policy. We contribute to the literature by: (1) computing different indicators of environmental policy stringency, (2) testing to what extent they convey similar insights through a statistical comparison exercise, and (3) showing the implications of using one or the other indicator in two illustrative empirical applications focused on environmental innovation and energy efficiency. We conclude by highlighting the implications of our analysis for empirical research focusing on the evaluation of policy impacts, and highlight fruitful future research avenues

Targeting the rna-binding protein hur as potential thera-peutic approach for neurological disorders: Focus on amyo-trophic lateral sclerosis (als), spinal muscle atrophy (sma) and multiple sclerosis

The importance of precise co- and post-transcriptional processing of RNA in the regulation of gene expression has become increasingly clear. RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are a class of proteins that bind single- or double-chain RNA, with different affinities and selectivity, thus regulating the various functions of RNA and the fate of the cells themselves. ELAV (embryonic lethal/abnormal visual system)/Hu proteins represent an important family of RBPs and play a key role in the fate of newly transcribed mRNA. ELAV proteins bind AU-rich element (ARE)-containing transcripts, which are usually present on the mRNA of proteins such as cytokines, growth factors, and other proteins involved in neuronal differentiation and maintenance. In this review, we focused on a member of ELAV/Hu proteins, HuR, and its role in the development of neurodegenerative disorders, with a particular focus on demyelinating diseases

I POTERI E LE RESPONSABILITÀ DEI CREDITORI TITOLARI DI STRUMENTI FINANZIARI PARTECIPATIVI NELL¿AMBITO DELLE PROCEDURE STRAGIUDIZIALI DI RISOLUZIONE DELLA CRISI DI IMPRESA

The dissertation deals with the powers and the responsibility of the banks which hold financial instruments referred to in article 2346, sixth paragraph of the Italian Civil Code within the framework of the out-of-court procedures of the resolution of the companies crisis. The first chapter aims to investigate the economic and legal reasons that encourage the use of the financial instruments within the abovementioned framework and the powers that can be allocated to the creditors by these in-struments. The second chapter analyzes the duty of goog faith and fair dealing of the banks which hold financial instruments and the consequences deriving from a breach of these principles. The third chapter draws the responsibility of the banks which hold financial instruments resulting from a violation of the article 2497 of the Italian Civil Code

Contribution of G inhibitory protein alpha subunits in paradoxical hyperalgesia elicited by exceedingly low doses of morphine in mice.

Aims: Although morphine, at higher doses, induces analgesia, it may also enhance sensitivity to pain at extremely low doses as shown in studies for testing an animal's sensitivity to pain. We used an antisense approach capable of selectively down-regulating in vivo G(i)(G inhibitory protein),G(o) and G(s) members of the G(alpha), sub-family protein subunits in order to establish if these proteins might be implicated in the effects induced by extremely low morphine doses on acute thermonociception. Main methods: Mice pretreated with a morphine hyperalgesic dose (1 mu g/kg) were submitted to hot plate test after pre-treatment with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (aODNs) targeting G(i alpha), G(o alpha) and G(s alpha) regulatory proteins. The association of G-protein (guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory protein) coupled receptors with G protein was investigated using co-immunoprecipitation procedure. Key findings: The downregulation of the G(i alpha 1-3) and G(o alpha 1) proteins reversed the licking latency responses induced by 1 mu g/kg morphine administration toward the basal value whereas downregulation of the G(o alpha 2) and G(s alpha) proteins did not significantly modify the hyperalgesic response. Significance: These results suggest that G inhibitory proteins play a role in the production of low dose evoked morphine hyperalgesia in mouse. Immunoprecipitation studies revealed that both mu opioid receptor (mu OR) and alpha(2) adrenoreceptor (alpha(2) AR) are bound to G inhibitory proteins in hyperalgesic response to morphine extremely low dose. Both mu OR and alpha(2) AR appear to be necessary for low morphine dose induced hyperalgesic response through G inhibitory proteins. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

Risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome after 2010–2011 influenza vaccination

Influenza vaccination has been implicated in Guillain Barré Syndrome (GBS) although the evidence for this link is controversial. A case–control study was conducted between October 2010 and May 2011 in seven Italian Regions to explore the relation between influenza vaccination and GBS. The study included 176 GBS incident cases aged ≥18 years from 86 neurological centers. Controls were selected among patients admitted for acute conditions to the Emergency Department of the same hospital as cases. Each control was matched to a case by sex, age, Region and admission date. Two different analyses were conducted: a matched case–control analysis and a self-controlled case series analysis (SCCS). Case–control analysis included 140 cases matched to 308 controls. The adjusted matched odds ratio (OR) for GBS occurrence within 6 weeks after influenza vaccination was 3.8 (95 % CI: 1.3, 10.5). A much stronger association with gastrointestinal infections (OR = 23.8; 95 % CI 7.3, 77.6) and influenza-like illness or upper respiratory tract infections (OR = 11.5; 95 % CI 5.6, 23.5) was highlighted. The SCCS analysis included all 176 GBS cases. Influenza vaccination was associated with GBS, with a relative risk of 2.1 (95 % CI 1.1, 3.9). According to these results the attributable risk in adults ranges from two to five GBS cases per 1,000,000 vaccinations

Conceivable difference in the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of lipocortins 1 and 5

Human recombinant lipocortins (LCT) 1 and 5 have been expressed in a yeast secretion vector and purified by ion exchange chromatography. The action of the proteins has been investigated in two models of experimental acute inflammation in the rat: carrageenin induced paw oedema and zymosan induced pleurisy. The effects of the proteins on PGE2 release in vitro by rat macrophages stimulated with zymosan and on rat neutrophil chemotaxis induced by FMLP have also been assessed. LCT-1 significantly inhibited both paw swelling in carrageenin oedema and leukocyte migration in zymosan pleurisy. Moreover it showed a dose dependent, inhibitory effect on PGE2 release. Neutrophil chemotaxis was only weakly affected by LCT-1. Conversely LCT-5 did not reduce carrageenin oedema and slightly inhibited PGE2 release, but showed profound, dose dependent inhibitory activity on leukocyte migration in zymosan pleurisy and on neutrophil chemotaxis. These data suggest that LCT-1 acts mainly by interfering with arachidonic acid metabolism via the inhibition of phospholipase A2. The anti-inflammatory activity of LCT-5, at variance with LCT-1, may be due to a direct effect on cell motility in addition to the interference with arachidonic acid metabolism