Eddy covariance mapping and quantification of surface CO2 leakage fluxes

We present eddy covariance measurements of net CO{sub 2} flux (F{sub c}) made during a controlled release of CO{sub 2} (0.3 t d{sup -1} from 9 July to 7 August 2008) from a horizontal well {approx}100 m in length and {approx}2.5 m in depth located in an agricultural field in Bozeman, MT. We isolated fluxes arising from the release (F{sub cr}) by subtracting fluxes corresponding to a model for net ecosystem exchange from F{sub c}. A least-squares inversion of 611 F{sub cr} and corresponding modeled footprint functions recovered the location, length, and magnitude of the surface CO{sub 2} flux leakage signal, although high wavenumber details of the signal were poorly resolved. The estimated total surface CO{sub 2} leakage rate (0.32 t d{sup ?1}) was within 7% of the release rate

High-resolution imaging of hydrothermal heat flux using optical and thermal Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry

Quantifying hydrothermal heat flux at meter-scale resolution over >0.25 km2 is required to bridge in-situ heat flux and satellite-based measurements. We advance a methodology that blends ground-based daytime optical and nighttime thermal infrared (TIR) imagery using Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry to map radiant hydrothermal heat flux over these scales at sites with low signal-to-noise ratios that would otherwise be difficult to characterize using, for example, unmanned aerial systems. The improved method uses a computerized telescopic mount to relocate and align daytime optical acquisitions with nighttime TIR imagery, thereby enabling TIR acquisition from multiple camera orientations positioned throughout a study area. This facilitates mapping of thermal features at sites of varying size and complexity and helps to ameliorate topographic occlusion effects and geometric distortions that can bias radiant hydrothermal heat flux estimates derived from the resulting orthorectified thermal maps. We assessed detection thresholds of this method at three sites across central California, which range in size, topography, and heat flux conditions. We found that blending of optical and thermal acquisitions successfully detected anomalous heat flux, even in cases where temperatures were only slightly greater than background. This approach might be applied to a variety of volcanic and hydrothermal systems to quantify the spatial distribution of heat flux, and how this may relate to factors such as the distribution of ground fractures and lava flow rheology

Dynamics of CO2 fluxes and concentrations during a shallow subsurface CO2 release

A field facility located in Bozeman, Montana provides the opportunity to test methods to detect, locate, and quantify potential CO2 leakage from geologic storage sites. From 9 July to 7 August 2008, 0.3 t CO2 d{sup -1} were injected from a 100-m long, {approx}2.5 m deep horizontal well. Repeated measurements of soil CO2 fluxes on a grid characterized the spatio-temporal evolution of the surface leakage signal and quantified the surface leakage rate. Infrared CO2 concentration sensors installed in the soil at 30 cm depth at 0 to 10 m from the well and at 4 cm above the ground at 0 and 5 m from the well recorded surface breakthrough of CO2 leakage and migration of CO2 leakage through the soil. Temporal variations in CO2 concentrations were correlated with atmospheric and soil temperature, wind speed, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, and CO2 injection rate

Dynamic coupling of volcanic CO2 flow and wind at the Horseshoe Lake tree kill, Mammoth Mountain, CA

We investigate spatio-temporal relationships between soil CO2 flux (FCO2), meteorological variables, and topography over a ten-day period (09/12/2006 to 09/21/2006) at the Horseshoe Lake tree kill, Mammoth Mountain, CA. Total CO2 discharge varied from 16 to 52 t d-1, suggesting a decline in CO2 emissions over decadal timescales. We observed systematic changes in FCO2 in space and time in association with a weather front with relatively high wind speeds from the west and low atmospheric pressures. The largest FCO2 changes were observed in relatively high elevation areas. The variations in FCO2 may be due to dynamic coupling of wind-driven airflow through the subsurface and flow of source CO2 at depth. Our results highlight the influence of weather fronts on volcanic gas flow in the near-surface environment and how this influence can vary spatially within a study area

Restraining bend tectonics in the Santa Cruz Mountains, California, imaged using 10Be concentrations in river sands

Reverse faults frequently generate large and destructive earthquakes, yet their seismic hazard remains diffi cult to assess with traditional paleoseismic tools because their surface expressions are often complex and subtle. This contribution assesses the utility of millennial- scale denudation rates derived from in-situ cosmogenic 10Be for revealing the spatial patterns and magnitudes of rock uplift produced by slip along reverse faults. We present seventeen basin-averaged denudation rates from rivers draining the Santa Cruz Mountains along the San Andreas fault (California, USA) which closely reproduce known uplift rate patterns associated with a restraining bend along the fault. An additional component of vertical deformation appears to be superposed on the uplift due to the restraining bend; this may result from regional transpression, further irregularities in the fault trace, or interactions with neighboring faults. Our results indicate that 10Be-derived denudation rates can reveal patterns of rock uplift adjacent to reverse faults over length-scales relevant for characterizing their seismic hazard potential

Does the topographic distribution of the central Andean Puna Plateau result from climatic or geodynamic processes?

Orogenic plateaus are extensive, high-elevation areas with low internal relief that have been attributed to deep-seated and/or climate-driven surface processes. In the latter case, models predict that lateral plateau growth results from increasing aridity along the margins as range uplift shields the orogen interior from precipitation. We analyze the spatiotemporal progression of basin isolation and filling at the eastern margin of the Puna Plateau of the Argentine Andes to determine if the topography predicted by such models is observed. We find that the timing of basin filling and reexcavation is variable, suggesting nonsystematic plateau growth. Instead, the Airy isostatically compensated component of topography constitutes the majority of the mean elevation gain between the foreland and the plateau. This indicates that deep-seated phenomena, such as changes in crustal thickness and/or lateral density, are required to produce high plateau elevations. In contrast, the frequency of the uncompensated topography within the plateau and in the adjacent foreland that is interrupted by ranges appears similar, although the amplitude of this topographic component increases east of the plateau. Combined with sedimentologic observations, we infer that the low internal relief of the plateau likely results from increased aridity and sediment storage within the plateau and along its eastern margin