Detection of doxorubicin-induced apoptosis of leukemic T-lymphocytes by laser tweezers Raman spectroscopy

Laser tweezers Raman spectroscopy (LTRS) was used to acquire the Raman spectra of leukemic T lymphocytes exposed to the chemotherapy drug doxorubicin at different time points over 72 hours. Changes observed in the Raman spectra were dependent on drug exposure time and concentration. The sequence of spectral changes includes an intensity increase in lipid Raman peaks, followed by an intensity increase in DNA Raman peaks, and finally changes in DNA and protein (phenylalanine) Raman vibrations. These Raman signatures are consistent with vesicle formation, cell membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, and the cytoplasm of dead cells during the different stages of drug-induced apoptosis. These results suggest the potential of LTRS as a real-time single cell tool for monitoring apoptosis, evaluating the efficacy of chemotherapeutic treatments, or pharmaceutical testing

Fatty acid-induced mitochondrial uncoupling in adipocytes as a key protective factor against insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction: a new concept in the pathogenesis of obesity-associated type 2 diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes is associated with excessive food intake and a sedentary lifestyle. Local inflammation of white adipose tissue induces cytokine-mediated insulin resistance of adipocytes. This results in enhanced lipolysis within these cells. The fatty acids that are released into the cytosol can be removed by mitochondrial β-oxidation. The flux through this pathway is normally limited by the rate of ADP supply, which in turn is determined by the metabolic activity of the adipocyte. It is expected that the latter does not adapt to an increased rate of lipolysis. We propose that elevated fatty acid concentrations in the cytosol of adipocytes induce mitochondrial uncoupling and thereby allow mitochondria to remove much larger amounts of fatty acids. By this, release of fatty acids out of adipocytes into the circulation is prevented. When the rate of fatty acid release into the cytosol exceeds the β-oxidation capacity, cytosolic fatty acid concentrations increase and induce mitochondrial toxicity. This results in a decrease in β-oxidation capacity and the entry of fatty acids into the circulation. Unless these released fatty acids are removed by mitochondrial oxidation in active muscles, these fatty acids result in ectopic triacylglycerol deposits, induction of insulin resistance, beta cell damage and diabetes. Thiazolidinediones improve mitochondrial function within adipocytes and may in this way alleviate the burden imposed by the excessive fat accumulation associated with the metabolic syndrome. Thus, the number and activity of mitochondria within adipocytes contribute to the threshold at which fatty acids are released into the circulation, leading to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes

Thymidine Kinase 2 Deficiency-Induced Mitochondrial DNA Depletion Causes Abnormal Development of Adipose Tissues and Adipokine Levels in Mice

Mammal adipose tissues require mitochondrial activity for proper development and differentiation. The components of the mitochondrial respiratory chain/oxidative phosphorylation system (OXPHOS) are encoded by both mitochondrial and nuclear genomes. The maintenance of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a key element for a functional mitochondrial oxidative activity in mammalian cells. To ascertain the role of mtDNA levels in adipose tissue, we have analyzed the alterations in white (WAT) and brown (BAT) adipose tissues in thymidine kinase 2 (Tk2) H126N knockin mice, a model of TK2 deficiency-induced mtDNA depletion. We observed respectively severe and moderate mtDNA depletion in TK2-deficient BAT and WAT, showing both tissues moderate hypotrophy and reduced fat accumulation. Electron microscopy revealed altered mitochondrial morphology in brown but not in white adipocytes from TK2-deficient mice. Although significant reduction in mtDNA-encoded transcripts was observed both in WAT and BAT, protein levels from distinct OXPHOS complexes were significantly reduced only in TK2-deficient BAT. Accordingly, the activity of cytochrome c oxidase was significantly lowered only in BAT from TK2-deficient mice. The analysis of transcripts encoding up to fourteen components of specific adipose tissue functions revealed that, in both TK2-deficient WAT and BAT, there was a consistent reduction of thermogenesis related gene expression and a severe reduction in leptin mRNA. Reduced levels of resistin mRNA were found in BAT from TK2-deficient mice. Analysis of serum indicated a dramatic reduction in circulating levels of leptin and resistin. In summary, our present study establishes that mtDNA depletion leads to a moderate impairment in mitochondrial respiratory function, especially in BAT, causes substantial alterations in WAT and BAT development, and has a profound impact in the endocrine properties of adipose tissues

Absence of an adipogenic effect of rosiglitazone on mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes: increase of lipid catabolism and reduction of adipokine expression

Aims/hypothesis: The thiazolidinedione (TZD) rosiglitazone is a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-¿ agonist that induces adipocyte differentiation and, hence, lipid accumulation. This is in apparent contrast to the long-term glucose-lowering, insulin-sensitising effect of rosiglitazone. We tested whether the action of rosiglitazone involves specific effects on mature adipocytes, which are different from those on preadipocytes. Materials and methods: Differentiated mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes were used as an in vitro model. Transcriptomics, proteomics and assays of metabolism were applied to assess the effect of rosiglitazone in different insulin and glucose conditions. Results: Rosiglitazone does not induce an increase, but rather a decrease in the lipid content of mature adipocytes. Analysis of transcriptome data, confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR and measurements of lipolysis, indicates that an altered energy metabolism may underlie this change. The pathway analysis shows a consistent picture dominated by lipid catabolism. In addition, we confirmed at both mRNA level and protein level that rosiglitazone represses adipokine expression and production, except for genes encoding adiponectin and apolipoprotein E. Moreover, transcriptome changes indicate that a general repression of genes encoding secreted proteins occurs. Conclusions/ interpretation: Our findings suggest that the change of adiposity as seen in vivo reflects a shift in balance between the different effects of TZDs on preadipocytes and on mature adipocytes, while the changes in circulating adipokine levels primarily result from an effect on mature adipocyte

Efficacy of host cell serine protease inhibitor MM3122 against SARS-CoV-2 for treatment and prevention of COVID-19

We developed a novel class of peptidomimetic inhibitors targeting several host cell human serine proteases, including transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), matriptase, and hepsin. TMPRSS2 is a membrane-associated protease that is highly expressed in the upper and lower respiratory tracts and is utilized by SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses to proteolytically process their glycoproteins, enabling host cell entry, replication, and dissemination of new virus particles. We have previously shown that compound MM3122 exhibited subnanomolar potency against all three proteases and displayed potent antiviral effects against SARS-CoV-2 in a cell viability assay. Herein, we demonstrate that MM3122 potently inhibits viral replication in human lung epithelial cells and is also effective against the EG.5.1 variant of SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, we evaluated MM3122 in a mouse model of COVID-19 and demonstrated that MM3122 administered intraperitoneally (IP) before (prophylactic) or after (therapeutic) SARS-CoV-2 infection had significant protective effects against weight loss and lung congestion and reduced pathology. Amelioration of COVID-19 disease was associated with a reduction in proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine production after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Prophylactic, but not therapeutic, administration of MM3122 also reduced virus titers in the lungs of SARS-CoV-2-infected mice. Therefore, MM3122 is a promising lead candidate small-molecule drug for the treatment and prevention of infections caused by SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses

Metabolic Flux Analysis of Mitochondrial Uncoupling in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

BACKGROUND:Increasing energy expenditure at the cellular level offers an attractive option to limit adiposity and improve whole body energy balance. In vivo and in vitro observations have correlated mitochondrial uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) expression with reduced white adipose tissue triglyceride (TG) content. The metabolic basis for this correlation remains unclear. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS:This study tested the hypothesis that mitochondrial uncoupling requires the cell to compensate for the decreased oxidation phosphorylation efficiency by up-regulating lactate production, thus redirecting carbon flux away from TG synthesis. Metabolic flux analysis was used to characterize the effects of non-lethal, long-term mitochondrial uncoupling (up to 18 days) on the pathways of intermediary metabolism in differentiating 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Uncoupling was induced by forced expression of UCP1 and chemical (FCCP) treatment. Chemical uncoupling significantly decreased TG content by ca. 35%. A reduction in the ATP level suggested diminished oxidative phosphorylation efficiency in the uncoupled adipocytes. Flux analysis estimated significant up-regulation of glycolysis and down-regulation of fatty acid synthesis, with chemical uncoupling exerting quantitatively larger effects. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE:The results of this study support our hypothesis regarding uncoupling-induced redirection of carbon flux into glycolysis and lactate production, and suggest mitochondrial proton translocation as a potential target for controlling adipocyte lipid metabolism

Genomic RNA Elements Drive Phase Separation of the SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid

We report that the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (N-protein) undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) with viral RNA. N-protein condenses with specific RNA genomic elements under physiological buffer conditions and condensation is enhanced at human body temperatures (33°C and 37°C) and reduced at room temperature (22°C). RNA sequence and structure in specific genomic regions regulate N-protein condensation while other genomic regions promote condensate dissolution, potentially preventing aggregation of the large genome. At low concentrations, N-protein preferentially crosslinks to specific regions characterized by single-stranded RNA flanked by structured elements and these features specify the location, number, and strength of N-protein binding sites (valency). Liquid-like N-protein condensates form in mammalian cells in a concentration-dependent manner and can be altered by small molecules. Condensation of N-protein is RNA sequence and structure specific, sensitive to human body temperature, and manipulatable with small molecules, and therefore presents a screenable process for identifying antiviral compounds effective against SARS-CoV-2

OXPHOS Supercomplexes as a Hallmark of the Mitochondrial Phenotype of Adipogenic Differentiated Human MSCs

Mitochondria are essential organelles with multiple functions, especially in energy metabolism. Recently, an increasing number of data has highlighted the role of mitochondria for cellular differentiation processes. Metabolic differences between stem cells and mature derivatives require an adaptation of mitochondrial function during differentiation. In this study we investigated alterations of the mitochondrial phenotype of human mesenchymal stem cells undergoing adipogenic differentiation. Maturation of adipocytes is accompanied by mitochondrial biogenesis and an increase of oxidative metabolism. Adaptation of the mt phenotype during differentiation is reflected by changes in the distribution of the mitochondrial network as well as marked alterations of gene expression and organization of the oxidative phosphorylation system (OXPHOS). Distinct differences in the supramolecular organization forms of cytochrome c oxidase (COX) were detected using 2D blue native (BN)-PAGE analysis. Most remarkably we observed a significant increase in the abundance of OXPHOS supercomplexes in mitochondria, emphasizing the change of the mitochondrial phenotype during adipogenic differentiation

The ε3 and ε4 Alleles of Human APOE Differentially Affect Tau Phosphorylation in Hyperinsulinemic and Pioglitazone Treated Mice

Impaired insulin signalling is increasingly thought to contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD). The ε4 isoform of the APOE gene is the greatest genetic risk factor for sporadic, late onset AD, and is also associated with risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Neuropathological studies reported the highest number of AD lesions in brain tissue of ε4 diabetic patients. However other studies assessing AD pathology amongst the diabetic population have produced conflicting reports and have failed to show an increase in AD-related pathology in diabetic brain. The thiazolidinediones (TZDs), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonists, are peripheral insulin sensitisers used to treat T2DM. The TZD, pioglitazone, improved memory and cognitive functions in mild to moderate AD patients. Since it is not yet clear how apoE isoforms influence the development of T2DM and its progression to AD, we investigated amyloid beta and tau pathology in APOE knockout mice, carrying human APOEε3 or ε4 transgenes after diet-induced insulin resistance with and without pioglitazone treatment.Male APOE knockout, APOEε3-transgenic and APOEε4-transgenic mice, together with background strain C57BL6 mice were kept on a high fat diet (HFD) or low fat diet (LFD) for 32 weeks, or were all fed HFD for 32 weeks and during the final 3 weeks animals were treated with pioglitazone or vehicle.All HFD animals developed hyperglycaemia with elevated plasma insulin. Tau phosphorylation was reduced at 3 epitopes (Ser396, Ser202/Thr205 and Thr231) in all HFD, compared to LFD, animals independent of APOE genotype. The introduction of pioglitazone to HFD animals led to a significant reduction in tau phosphorylation at the Ser202/Thr205 epitope in APOEε3 animals only. We found no changes in APP processing however the levels of soluble amyloid beta 40 was reduced in APOE knockout animals treated with pioglitazone