Forward and adjoint quasi-geostrophic models of the geomagnetic secular variation

International audienceWe introduce a quasi-geostrophic model of core dynamics, which aims at describ- ing core processes on geomagnetic secular variation timescales. It extends the for- malism of Alfv ́en torsional oscillations by incorporating non-zonal motions. Within this framework, the magnetohydrodynamics takes place in the equatorial plane; it involves quadratic magnetic quantities, which are averaged along the direction of ro- tation of the Earth. In addition, the equatorial flow is projected on the core-mantle boundary. It interacts with the magnetic field at the core surface, through the radial component of the magnetic induction equation. That part of the model connects the dynamics and the observed secular variation, with the radial component of the magnetic field acting as a passive tracer. We resort to variational data assimilation to construct formally the relationship between model predictions and observations. Variational data assimilation seeks to minimize an objective function, by computing its sensitivity to its control variables. The sensitivity is efficiently calculated after in- tegration of the adjoint model. We illustrate that framework with twin experiments, performed first in the case of the kinematic core flow inverse problem, and then in the case of Alfv ́en torsional oscillations. In both cases, using the adjoint model allows us to retrieve core state variables which, while taking part in the dynamics, are not directly sampled at the core surface. We study the effect of several factors on the solution (width of the assimilation time window, amount and quality of data), and we discuss the potential of the model to deal with real geomagnetic observations

Asexual reproduction induces a rapid and permanent loss of sexual reproduction capacity in the rice fungal pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae: results of in vitro experimental evolution assays

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Sexual reproduction is common in eukaryotic microorganisms, with few species reproducing exclusively asexually. However, in some organisms, such as fungi, asexual reproduction alternates with episodic sexual reproduction events. Fungi are thus appropriate organisms for studies of the reasons for the selection of sexuality or clonality and of the mechanisms underlying this selection. <it>Magnaporthe oryzae</it>, an Ascomycete causing blast disease on rice, reproduces mostly asexually <it>in natura</it>. Sexual reproduction is possible <it>in vitro </it>and requires (i) two strains of opposite mating types including (ii) at least one female-fertile strain (<it>i.e</it>. a strain able to produce perithecia, the female organs in which meiosis occurs). Female-fertile strains are found only in limited areas of Asia, in which evidence for contemporary recombination has recently been obtained. We induced the forced evolution of four Chinese female-fertile strains <it>in vitro </it>by the weekly transfer of asexual spores (conidia) between Petri dishes. We aimed to determine whether female fertility was rapidly lost in the absence of sexual reproduction and whether this loss was controlled genetically or epigenetically.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>All the strains became female-sterile after 10 to 19 rounds of selection under asexual conditions. As no single-spore isolation was carried out, the observed decrease in the production of perithecia reflected the emergence and the invasion of female-sterile mutants. The female-sterile phenotype segregated in the offspring of crosses between female-sterile evolved strains and female-fertile wild-type strains. This segregation was maintained in the second generation in backcrosses. Female-sterile evolved strains were subjected to several stresses, but none induced the restoration of female fertility. This loss of fertility was therefore probably due to genetic rather than epigenetic mechanisms. In competition experiments, female-sterile mutants produced similar numbers of viable conidia to wild-type strains, but released them more efficiently. This advantage may account for the invasion of our populations by female-sterile mutants.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>We show for the first time that, in the absence of sexual reproduction, female-sterile mutants of <it>M. oryzae </it>rice strains can arise and increase in abundance in asexual generations. This change in phenotype was frequent and probably caused by mutation. These results suggest that female fertility may have been lost rapidly during the dispersion of the fungus from Asia to the rest of the world.</p

Diversité et adaptation aux fongicides des populations de Botrytis cinerea, agent de la pourriture grise

La sélection naturelle constitue un processus clé de l adaptation des populations à leur environnement, favorisant les variants présentant les meilleures valeurs sélectives. Les champignons présentent généralement des traits biologiques (diversité des modes de reproduction, grandes tailles de populations, fortes capacités de dispersion, entre autres) qui favorisent leur adaptation à des environnements variés. La compréhension des mécanismes qui sous-tendent l évolution de leurs populations sous les contraintes, naturelles et anthropiques, qu elles subissent constituent donc un enjeu majeur pour la protection des plantes, en particulier dans le contexte actuel de durabilité des méthodes de lutte. Dans cette thèse, nous avons décrit la structure et la diversité des populations Botrytis cinerea à l aide de marqueurs neutres et sélectionnés et d un échantillonnage emboîté, et avons proposé des mécanismes pouvant expliquer les résultats observés. Puis nous avons analysé la réponse adaptative des populations de B. cinerea en Champagne, aux applications de fongicides. Premièrement, nous avons montré que la pourriture grise était causée par un complexe de deux espèces cryptiques, vivant en sympatrie sur des hôtes communs. De plus, les populations françaises de B. cinerea sont structurées en cinq dèmes, caractérisés par le système de culture (sélection directionnelle), la plante-hôte (adaptation écologique), et dans une moindre mesure, par la géographie. Sur vigne, nous avons mis en évidence une entité dont l isolement génétique semble lié à un isolement temporel. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que l application de fongicides conduit à la sélection de phénotypes résistants spécifiquement à quasiment tous les modes d action homologués, selon des proportions variant suivant les vignobles et les usages. Plus particulièrement, la résistance aux fongicides inhibiteurs de la succinate déshydrogénase (SDHI) est causée par au moins sept mutations affectant les gènes encodant la protéine cible de ces fongicides, déterminant ainsi une grande variété de phénotypes. Enfin, nous avons montré que les fongicides ne modifiaient pas la structure neutre des populations mais qu ils pouvaient conduire à une perte de richesse allélique dans les populations traitées ainsi qu à un équilibre sélection-migration détectable dans certaines situations sous forme de clines au loci sous pression de sélection contemporaine tels que ceux déterminant la résistance multidrogues. La modélisation de l évolution des fréquences de résistance hivernale a permis d estimer le coût de la résistance pour quatre loci déterminant la résistance aux fongicides. Cette thèse a permis d appréhender le fonctionnement des populations de B. cinerea et de comprendre et quantifier partiellement les mécanismes sélectifs opérant in natura. Ces informations seront utilisées pour raisonner des stratégies anti-résistance adaptées localement et durables.Natural selection is the most powerful force driving population adaptation to their environment, favoring the variants with the best fitness. Fungi generally exhibit biological traits (diversity of reproduction modes, large population sizes, and intense dispersion) that favor their adaptation to changing environments. Therefore, disentangling the mechanisms that explain their evolution under natural and anthropic constraints constitute a major challenge for plant protection, especially in the actual context of agriculture sustainability. In this thesis, we described Botrytis cinerea population structure and diversity, using neutral and selected markers and a hierarchical sampling, and proposed mechanisms that may explain these observations. We then analyzed the adaptive answer of this species towards fungicide applications. First, we showed that grey mold populations were caused by a complex of two cryptic species, living sympatrically on the same hosts. Second, B. cinerea populations are divided into five demes, according to the cropping system (directional selection), the host-plant (ecological adaptation), and to a lesser extent, by geography. On grapevine, we identified a specific populations exhibiting temporal isolation, as an evidence of extreme exploration of the viticultural conditions. Moreover, fungicide applications select resistance towards all unisite modes of action, with few exceptions, but at varying proportions according to vineyards and fungicide use. More specifically, resistance to succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHIs) is caused by at least seven mutations altering the target genes of these fungicides, and determines a large variety of phenotypes in the field. At last, we showed that fungicides did not shape population structure but that they could decrease allele richness in treated areas and lead to migration-selection equilibrium, detectable in some situation and for loci under contemporary selective pressures as clines. Modeling the evolution of resistance during winter allowed estimating fitness cost of four loci involved in contemporary fungicide resistance, such as multidrug resistance. As a conclusion, this thesis helped to understand how B. cinerea populations evolve and to detect and quantify selective mechanisms at work in natura. This information will be useful to deign sustainable and locally-adapted anti-resistance strategies.PARIS11-SCD-Bib. électronique (914719901) / SudocSudocFranceF