EFFECTS OF WINNING AND LOSING ON THE INTERACTION PATTERN OF GROUP PARTNERS

Of special interest in the field of social psychology are the differences among groups in their functioning that distinguishes them from one another. Cartwright and Zander (1960) speak of this in pointing out that some groups work together with a great deal more success, satisfaction, and with a greater sense of togetherness than others. Some groups are racked with dissent, insouciance, and such a failure to meet goals and standards as to result in a slow death of inactivity. These differences persist even under basically identical circumstances. Concerning this point, Pepitone and Kleiner (1957, p. 192) state: Everyday observations of how threat and frustration operate are highly inconsistent. It is often apparent, for example, that groups under stress pull together and close ranks more than under normal circumstances. Investigation in this area has been relatively recent in coming, and theory is yet greatly lacking. A few studies were done prior to and around 1940, but the majority have been conducted after 1950. One indication of the growth occurring in the last twenty-five years is the proliferation of tenns and the different meanings attached to them. Generally falling under the heading cohesiveness, researchers have spoken of sticking togetherness, productivity, power, task involvement, feeling of belongingness, shared understanding of roles, and good teamwork (Schachter, Ellerton, McBride, and Gregory, 1951). Despite the variability, definitions of cohesiveness can be roughly categorized into two classes. The first deals with the particular aspects of group behavior, or process, referring to such things as the morale, efficiency, or spirit of the group. The second centers around the attractiveness of the group for its members (Schachter, Ellerton, McBride, and Gregory, 1951). Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1950), in defining cohesiveness as the average resulting force acting on members with direction to the group, give emphasis to the second class while generally neglecting the first. Blake (1953), 0n the other hand, was more concerned with the behavior of the group, speaking in terms of the expression of positive and negative feelings, but he interpreted such in the light of what attitudes toward the group it reflected. Recognizing the problem, Cartwright and Zander (1960, p. 72) attempted to refine the concept of cohesiveness in the following: The term cohesiveness refers to phenomena which come into existence if, and only if, the group exists. A person must have some notion about the properties of a given group before he can react to it favorably or unfavorabLy. His attraction to the group will depend upon two sets of conditions: (a) such properties of the group as its goals, programs, size, type of organization, and position in the community; and (b) the needs of the person for affiliation, recognition, security, and other things which can be mediated by the groups. Both the nature of the group and the motivational state of the persons must be treated in any adequate formulation of group cohesiveness . . . The valence, or attractiveness, of any object or activity is a function of the needs of the individual and the properties of the object. In light of such a formulation it would seem that cohesiveness is defined by the needs of each group and its functions, and that a fruitful approach for investigation is to study it by varying these two conditions as much as possible. Perhaps some tendencies can then be found which will better explain the differences among groups. The present study deals with both the behavior of a group and the attitudes of its members in a situation in which their functioning was continually being affected by external factors. In one condition their progress toward the achievement of a goal was continually blocked, leading to eventual failure. In the second condition their progress toward the goal was permitted, and perhaps helped, to continually improve, leading to eventual success. In terms of cohesiveness the specific concern of this study is the differences in support and opposition between members of triadic groups and differences in their attitudes toward one another under these circumstances

The design and implementation of the Technical Facilities Controller (TFC) for the Goldstone deep space communications complex

The Technical Facilities Controller is a microprocessor-based energy management system that is to be implemented in the Deep Space Network facilities. This system is used in conjunction with facilities equipment at each of the complexes in the operation and maintenance of air-conditioning equipment, power generation equipment, power distribution equipment, and other primary facilities equipment. The implementation of the Technical Facilities Controller was completed at the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex and is now operational. The installation completed at the Goldstone Complex is described and the utilization of the Technical Facilities Controller is evaluated. The findings will be used in the decision to implement a similar system at the overseas complexes at Canberra, Australia, and Madrid, Spain

Pumped quantum systems: immersion fluids of the future?

Quantum optical techniques may yield immersion fluids with high indices of refraction without absorption. We describe one such technique in which a probe field experiences a large index of refraction with amplification rather than absorption, and examine its practicality for an immersion lithography application. Enhanced index can be observed in a three-level system with a tunable, near-resonant, coherent probe and incoherent pump field that inverts population of the probe transition. This observation contradicts the common belief that large indices of refraction are impossible without absorption, however it is well in accord with existing electromagnetic theory and practice. Calculations show that a refractive index >> 2 is possible with practical experimental parameters. A scheme with an incoherent mixture of pumped and unpumped atoms is also examined, and is seen to have a lower refractive index (~2) accompanied by neither gain nor loss.Comment: 6 pages, 7 figures, accepted for publication in J. Vac. Sci. Tech. B, Nov/Dec 2005 (full reference not known yet

Lifetimes of ultralong-range strontium Rydberg molecules in a dense BEC

The lifetimes and decay channels of ultralong-range Rydberg molecules created in a dense BEC are examined by monitoring the time evolution of the Rydberg population using field ionization. Studies of molecules with values of principal quantum number, $n$, in the range $n=49$ to $n=72$ that contain tens to hundreds of ground state atoms within the Rydberg electron orbit show that their presence leads to marked changes in the field ionization characteristics. The Rydberg molecules have lifetimes of $\sim1-5\,\mu$s, their destruction being attributed to two main processes: formation of Sr$^+_2$ ions through associative ionization, and dissociation induced through $L$-changing collisions. The observed loss rates are consistent with a reaction model that emphasizes the interaction between the Rydberg core ion and its nearest neighbor ground-state atom. The measured lifetimes place strict limits on the time scales over which studies involving Rydberg species in cold, dense atomic gases can be undertaken and limit the coherence times for such measurements.Comment: 9 pages, 8 figure

Ultralong-Range Rydberg Molecules in a Divalent-Atomic System

We report the creation of ultralong-range Sr$_2$ molecules comprising one ground-state $5s^2$ $^1S_0$ atom and one atom in a $5sns$ $^3S_1$ Rydberg state for $n$ ranging from 29 to 36. Molecules are created in a trapped ultracold atomic gas using two-photon excitation near resonant with the $5s5p$ $^3P_1$ intermediate state, and their formation is detected through ground-state atom loss from the trap. The observed molecular binding energies are fit with the aid of first-order perturbation theory that utilizes a Fermi pseudopotential with effective $s$-wave and $p$-wave scattering lengths to describe the interaction between an excited Rydberg electron and a ground-state Sr atom.Comment: 5 pages, 2 figure

Plasma formation from ultracold Rydberg gases

Recent experiments have demonstrated the spontaneous evolution of a gas of ultracold Rydberg atoms into an expanding ultracold plasma, as well as the reverse process of plasma recombination into highly excited atomic states. Treating the evolution of the plasma on the basis of kinetic equations, while ionization/excitation and recombination are incorporated using rate equations, we have investigated theoretically the Rydberg-to-plasma transition. Including the influence of spatial correlations on the plasma dynamics in an approximate way we find that ionic correlations change the results only quantitatively but not qualitatively