Techniques for Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Inoculum Reduction

It is well established that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi can play a significant role in sustainable crop production and environmental conservation. With the increasing awareness of the ecological significance of mycorrhizas and their diversity, research needs to be directed away from simple records of their occurrence or casual speculation of their function (Smith and Read 1997). Rather, the need is for empirical studies and investigations of the quantitative aspects of the distribution of different types and their contribution to the function of ecosystems. There is no such thing as a fungal effect or a plant effect, but there is an interaction between both symbionts. This results from the AM fungi and plant community size and structure, soil and climatic conditions, and the interplay between all these factors (Kahiluoto et al. 2000). Consequently, it is readily understood that it is the problems associated with methodology that limit our understanding of the functioning and effects of AM fungi within field communities. Given the ubiquous presence of AM fungi, a major constraint to the evaluation of the activity of AM colonisation has been the need to account for the indigenous soil native inoculum. This has to be controlled (i.e. reduced or eliminated) if we are to obtain a true control treatment for analysis of arbuscular mycorrhizas in natural substrates. There are various procedures possible for achieving such an objective, and the purpose of this chapter is to provide details of a number of techniques and present some evaluation of their advantages and disadvantages. Although there have been a large number of experiments to investigated the effectiveness of different sterilization procedures for reducing pathogenic soil fungi, little information is available on their impact on beneficial organisms such as AM fungi. Furthermore, some of the techniques have been shown to affect physical and chemical soil characteristics as well as eliminate soil microorganisms that can interfere with the development of mycorrhizas, and this creates difficulties in the interpretation of results simply in terms of possible mycorrhizal activity. An important subject is the differentiation of methods that involve sterilization from those focussed on indigenous inoculum reduction. Soil sterilization aims to destroy or eliminate microbial cells while maintaining the existing chemical and physical characteristics of the soil (Wolf and Skipper 1994). Consequently, it is often used for experiments focussed on specific AM fungi, or to establish a negative control in some other types of study. In contrast, the purpose of inoculum reduction techniques is to create a perturbation that will interfere with mycorrhizal formation, although not necessarily eliminating any component group within the inoculum. Such an approach allows the establishment of different degrees of mycorrhizal formation between treatments and the study of relative effects. Frequently the basic techniques used to achieve complete sterilization or just an inoculum reduction may be similar but the desired outcome is accomplished by adjustments of the dosage or intensity of the treatment. The ultimate choice of methodology for establishing an adequate non-mycorrhizal control depends on the design of the particular experiments, the facilities available and the amount of soil requiring treatment

Mycorrhizas in South American Anthropic Environments

The agricultural expansion has leaded to increase the irrigated cropland area and the use of fertilizers, resulting in water degradation, increased energy use, and common pollution. Of particular concern is the increased interest to reduce the environmental impacts of high quantities of water dedicated to irrigation by agricultural activities We are now truly recognizing the importance of sustainable measures in agriculture such as conservation of the vegetation cover and management approach to understand surface and deep soil responses to global change. The agroecology management based on key processes from natural ecosystems can help to solve some agricultural difficulties. Increasing studies on the Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) has showed their importance for soil ecology and studies on their biodiversity have spread in some agro-ecosystems such as corn and soybean monocultures. Therefore, it is needed to deeply study the mycorrhizal functions under global change. In this chapter, we examine the major developments and advances on mycorrhizal fungi based on recent research from South American countries. New reports on the occurrence of mycorrhizas in Amazonian dark earth, as well as the inoculum production of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi native of soils under native forest covers, have resulted in a more detailed understanding of the soil biology from South America. Reports from Amazonian dark earth or “Terra preta do índio” soil has stimulated the use of biochar worldwide as a soil conditioner that can add value to non-harvested agricultural products and promote plant growth. Few reports from Brazil showed that the addition of inorganic fertilizer, compost and chicken manure resulted in increases in plant cover and plant species richness. In this sense, the biochar/mycorrhizae interactions also can be prioritized for sequestration of carbon in soils to contribute to climate change mitigation

Biodiversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in South America: A Review

Identification of species is crucial in understanding how diversity changes affect ecosystemic processes. Particularly, soil microbial are key factors of ecosystemic functioning .Among soil microbes, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF, phylum Glomeromycota) are worldwide distributed and form symbiotic associations with almost 80% of the vascular plants of the earth, except for one species, Geosiphon pyriformis, which associates with the cyanobacteria Nostoc. AMF comprise around 300 morphologically defined or 350–1000 molecularly defined taxa. Since AMF associate with aboveground community, their occurrence and composition can influence ecosystemic processes either through affecting plant community composition and thus its processes rates, or soil microbial communities, which are directly involved in nutrient cycling. Soil microorganisms are considered a potentially suitable target for studying regional and local effects on diversity. The symbiosis with AMF not only increases nutrient uptake by the plant of mainly phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) in exchange for plant-assimilated carbon (C), but also improves the tolerance of plants to various biotic and abiotic stresses such as pathogens, salinity, and drought

Learning, evolvability and exploratory behaviour: extending the evolutionary reach of learning

Traditional accounts of the role of learning in evolution have concentrated upon its capacity as a source of fitness to individuals. In this paper I use a case study from invasive species biology—the role of conditioned taste aversion in mitigating the impact of cane toads on the native species of Northern Australia—to highlight a role for learning beyond this—as a source of evolvability to populations. This has two benefits. First, it highlights an otherwise under-appreciated role for learning in evolution that does not rely on social learning as an inheritance channel nor “special” evolutionary processes such as genetic accommodation (both of which many are skeptical about). Second, and more significantly, it makes clear important and interesting parallels between learning and exploratory behaviour in development. These parallels motivate the applicability of results from existing research into learning and learning evolution to our understanding the evolution of evolvability more generally.23 page(s

Indicadores para seleccionar inóculos de hongos micorrícicos arbusculares eficientes en suelos moderadamente ácidos Indicators to select efficient arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inocula in moderately acidic soils

En ocasiones los propágulos de hongos micorrícicos arbusculares (HMA) en los suelos pueden estar en bajo número o éstos no ser eficientes para aumentar el crecimiento de las plantas hospedadoras. La estrategia sería recurrir a la inoculación con HMA (nativos o no). Si la inoculación se realiza con HMA no nativos, debe considerarse que los suelos difieren en su receptividad a los HMA a ser introducidos. El objetivo del trabajo fue seleccionar algunos indicadores de presencia, actividad y beneficio de la simbiosis planta-HMA no nativos para ser utilizados como inóculos en suelos moderadamente ácidos. Para ello, se evaluó cómo la inoculación con HMA incidió sobre la colonización micorrícica y algunos parámetros de crecimiento en una planta modelo crecida en dos suelos moderadamente ácidos de diferente origen (Argentina y Francia). En el suelo de la Argentina la inoculación con Glomus claroideum y Acaulospora longula ocasionaron los mayores grados de micorrización total y con actividad fosfatasa alcalina (ALP) así como las mayores respuestas micorrícicas (RM). En el suelo de Francia, el mayor crecimiento y cantidad de raíz micorrizada se obtuvieron por la inoculación con A. longula. La inoculación con Scutellospora pellucida presentó adecuada RM en el suelo de la Argentina, pero nula en el suelo de Francia. G. clarum manifestó una alta capacidad micotrófica, aunque una baja eficiencia para ser utilizado en los suelos testeados. Asimismo, la inoculación con A. laevins presentó los más bajos niveles de colonización y las menores respuestas de crecimiento en ambos suelos. El análisis directo de los parámetros, así como el análisis multivariado entre la RM y los parámetros de micorrización y crecimiento mostraron que la combinación entre los parámetros de peso aéreo y de producción de raíces con los de colonización micorrícica (total y con actividad ALP) resulta adecuada para identificar de manera rápida las potenciales cepas de HMA a introducir. La actividad ALP es un parámetro que evidenció la actividad de los HMA y presentó buena correlación con la respuesta de crecimiento. La producción de raíces combinada con el porcentaje de micorrización mostró ser un parámetro de utilidad, sin embargo hay que considerar que en condiciones de campo no es factible cuantificar el peso radical total obtenido por planta. El crecimiento en altura de la planta, puede, en algunos casos, ser un parámetro de utilidad.<br>The propagules of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in soils are sometimes insufficient in number or efficiency to increase the growth of host plants. That situation could be resolved by inoculating the soils with indigenous or nonin-digenous AMF. However, it must take into account that soils may differ in their receptivity to the introduced AMF. The aim of this work was to select parameters as indicators of the presence, activity and benefit of plant-symbiotic non-indigenous AMF which can be used as inoculants in moderately acidic soils. We evaluated how inoculation with AMF affected mycorrhizal colonization and growth parameters of model onion plants grown in two moderately acid soils of different origin (Argentina and France). Inoculation with Glomus claroideum and Acaulospora longula in the Argentinean soil produced the highest AMF colonization of roots, total alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP) and highest mycorrhizal response (MR). In the soil from France, inoculation with A. longula produced the highest amount of mycorrhizal roots and plant growth. Inoculation with Scutellospora pellucida produced an appropriate MR in the Argentinean soil but no significant MR was detected in the soil from France. G. clarum showed a high capacity to colonize roots but low efficiency for MR. Inoculation with A. laevins produced the lowest levels of colonization and MR in both soils. Direct and multivariate analysis of the tested parameters showed that the accumulation of dry shoot matter and fresh root matter combined with mycorrhizal colonization (both total and with ALP activity) is adequate for the rapid identification of potentially efficient strains for introduction into the tested soils. The ALP efficiently showed tested AMF activities and good correlation with plant growth responses. Although root growth combined with mycorrhizal colonization could be a useful parameter, it must be taken into consideration that it is not easy under field conditions to quantify total root weight per plant. Plant height may in some cases be a useful parameter

Functionality of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in three plant communities in the Managed Floristic Reserve San Ubaldo-Sabanalamar, Cuba

En el presente estudio se evaluó, durante dos años, la influencia de los períodos seco y lluvioso sobre el funcionamiento de hongos formadores de micorrizas arbusculares (HFMA) simbiontes de plantas nativas de una sabana semi natural, una sabana recuperada de la actividad agrícola y un agroecosistema, ubicados en la Reserva Florística Manejada San Ubaldo-Sabanalamar, Pinar del Río, Cuba. Se recolectaron muestras de suelo en abril y octubre (período seco y húmedo de 2008 y 2010, respectivamente). Dentro de cada ecosistema se seleccionaron cuatro parcelas y se recolectaron cinco submuestras al azar, las que fueron homogeneizadas para formar una muestra compuesta por parcela. Se cuantificó la biomasa de raicillas, la colonización micorrízica de las plantas hospedadoras en el campo, el micelio extrarradical, el micelio endófito y la densidad de esporas. La biomasa de raicillas en la sabana semi natural incrementó durante los períodos secos, la cual alcanzó hasta 12.85 g/dm3 de suelo. En todos los ecosistemas, la mayor colonización micorrízica ocurrió en la época lluviosa del segundo año con valores que oscilaron entre 79 y 89 %. Las mayores biomasas de micelio externo fueron registradas en los tres ecosistemas durante el período seco del segundo año, con un valor máximo de 279 mg/dm3 de suelo en la sabana recuperada. La mayor densidad de esporas de HFMA fue determinada en el periodo seco del segundo año para los tres ecosistemas estudiados, con el valor más alto en la sabana recuperada con 5 670 esporas/100 g de suelo seco. De manera general, se evidenció un efecto de la estacionalidad de la lluvia más que del manejo de ecosistema sobre el funcionamiento de los HFMA. La mayor actividad colonizadora se evidenció en períodos húmedos, mientras que mayor biomasa de raicillas y micelio externo durante los períodos secos, lo que sugiere estrategias de incremento del volumen del suelo explorado por parte de los HFMA como de las plantas hospedadoras. La proliferación de esporas evidenció la formación de estructuras de resistencia de los HFMA ante condiciones adversas. Los resultados obtenidos pondrían en evidencia la plasticidad de la simbiosis micorrízica ante variaciones en la disponibilidad de agua. Despite the ubiquity and importance of indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) for plant ecosystems; functioning of indigenus mycorrhizal symbiosis (IMS) and related environmental factors at coastal Caribbean ecosystems remains still scarce. In order to determine functionality of IMS under contrasting land uses and wet seasons from Cuba, the influence of the water stress on some AMF functionality parameters from a semi-natural savannah (NS), a recovered savannah (RS) and an agro-ecosystem (AG) from the Managed Floristic Reserve San Ubaldo-Sabanalamar, Pinar del Rio, Cuba were assessed during two-years. Soil and root samples were collected in April and October, during the dry and wet seasons, respectively, in 2008 and 2010. Four plots in each ecosystem were selected, and five soil sub-samples were randomly collected, bulked, mixed homogeneously and used as the composite sample per plot. The host plant root biomass, arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of the host plant, density of the intraradical and extraradical AMF mycelia, fungal endophyte biomass and AMF spore density were assessed. The host plant root biomass increased in the NS environment during the dry season, and approximately 12.85g root/dm3 dry soil was recorded. The colonization scores were significantly higher in all environments during the wet season of the second year, with means ranging from 79% to 89%. The extraradical mycelia were significantly more abundant in the dry season of the second year in all environments, with a maximum of 279mg/dm3 in the RS ecosystem. The density of AMF spores was highest in the dry season of the second year for the three studied ecosystems. The RS ecosystem hosted 5 670 spores/100g dry soil. In general, the influence of rainfall seasonality on the function of AMF was stronger than the influence of ecosystem management. The root biomass and extraradical mycelia were high in the dry seasons, suggesting strategies to increase the volume of soil for the mutual benefit of the symbionts. The increase in spore density during the dry seasons appears as an adaptation allowing AMF to survive period of water shortage. This study improves our understanding of the adaptative responses of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis to seasonal variations in soil water availability.