Students’ emotional engagement, motivation and behaviour over the life of an online course: reflections on two market research case studies

Since 2013, Leeds Beckett has carried out two studies, working with market researchers, into students’ feelings and perceptions of online courses and their learning context. This work has been conducted outside routine data collection for statistical reporting to regulatory agencies, as these exercises do not explore a student’s engagement or behaviour in a rich enough way to assist practitioners in the design of learning products, services and experiences. The unstated philosophy of both studies discussed has been to ground learning behaviour, and hence engagement, in the whole life of the individual student and, in the second study, over an extended time period. This includes the student’s emotional life. The role of emotions in learning has been explored by researchers but is also of interest to practitioners who, engage with students in a real life, rather than experimental, context. This paper describes these two studies, their findings and their value in developing and delivering online courses. The first study (2014) was entirely qualitative. It covered a small sample, in a narrow time window, but provided rich, nuanced insights into learning context and motivation. The second study (2016) was a longitudinal study of a much larger sample of students, using a mix of qualitative research and quantitative data collection. Both studies help us contextualise the ‘online student’, whose presence and activities online are subject to institutional measurement, in the ‘whole person’ of the student

Putting the pieces of the puzzle together: Age and sex-specific estimates of migration amongst countries in the EU/EFTA, 2002-2007

Because of inconsistencies in reported flows and large amounts of missing data, our knowledge of international migration patterns in Europe is limited. Methods for overcoming data obstacles and harmonising international migration data, however, are improving. In this paper, we provide a methodology for integrating various pieces of incomplete information together, including a partial set of harmonised migration flows, to estimate a complete set of migration flows by origin, destination, age and sex for the 31 countries in the European Union and European Free Trade Association from 2002 to 2007. The results represent a synthetic data base that can be used to inform population projections, policy decisions and migration theory.Du fait d’incohérences dans l’enregistrement des flux migratoires et du grand nombre de données manquantes, notre connaissance des schémas de migrations internationales en Europe reste limitée. Cependant, les méthodes disponibles pour surmonter les obstacles liés aux données et pour harmoniser les données sur la migration internationale s’améliorent. Dans cet article, nous proposons une méthode pour combiner les différents éléments de ces informations incomplètes, incluant un ensemble partiel de données harmonisées sur les flux migratoires, afin d’estimer une série complète de flux migratoires par pays d’origine, pays de destination, âge et sexe pour les 31 pays de l’Union Européenne et de l’Association Européenne de Libre Echange de 2002 à 2007. Les résultats constituent une base de données synthétique pouvant servir de base pour les projections de population, les décisions politiques et les théories relatives à la migration

Effects of virus infection on release of volatile organic compounds from insect-damaged bean, Phaseolus vulgaris

Insects can serve as important vectors of plant pathogens, especially viruses. Insect feeding on plants causes the systemic release of a wide range of plant volatile compounds that can serve as an indirect plant defense by attracting natural enemies of the herbivorous insect. Previous work suggests that the Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis) prefers to feed on plants infected by either of two viruses that it is known to transmit: Southern bean mosaic virus (SBMV) or Bean pod mottle virus (BPMV). A possible explanation for the preferred feeding on virus-infected tissues is that the beetles are attracted by volatile signals released from leaves. The purpose of this work was to determine whether volatile compounds from virus-infected plants are released differentially from those emitted by uninfected plants. To test the hypothesis, common bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris cv. Black Valentine) were inoculated with either BPMV, SBMV, or a mixture of both viruses, and infected plants were compared to uninfected plants. An Ouchterlony assay was used with SBMVand BPMV-specific antisera to confirm the presence of virus in inoculated plants. RNA blot analysis was performed on tissue from each plant and indicated that a well-characterized defense gene, encoding phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), was not induced in systemic tissue following virus infection. Plant volatiles were collected—and analyzed via gas chromatography (GC)—from plants that were either undamaged or beetle-damaged. In undamaged plants, there were no measurable differences in profiles or quantities of compounds released by uninfected and virus-infected plants. After Mexican bean beetles were allowed to feed on plants for 48 h, injured plants released several compounds that were not released from undamaged plants. Lower quantities of volatile compounds were released from virus-infected plants suggesting that enhanced release of plant-derived volatile organic compounds is not the cause for attraction of Mexican bean beetles to virus-infected plants

The effects of classic and variant infectious bursal disease viruses on lymphocyte populations in specific-pathogen-free White Leghorn chickens

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a pathogen that primarily infects B lymphocytes in domestic avian species. This viral infection has been associated with immunosuppression, clinical disease/mortality, and enteric malabsorption effects. The purpose of this experiment was to compare the effects of a classic (USDA-STC) and a new variant IBDV (RB-4, known to induce primarily the enteric disease) on immune cell populations in lymphoid organs. Seventeen-dayold specific-pathogen-free (SPF) White Leghorn chickens were either not infected (control) or inoculated with either USDA-STC or RB-4 IBD viral isolate. On days 3 and 5 post-inoculation (PI), lymphoid tissues were collected to prepare cell suspensions for immunofluorescent staining and cell population analysis by flow cytometry. Portions of the tissues were snap frozen for immunohistochemistry to localize various immune cells and IBD virus in the tissues. Tissue homogenates were prepared to test for IBDV by quantitative MTT assay. Both the USDA-STC and RB-4 viruses greatly altered lymphocyte populations in the spleen and bursa. At 5 d PI, bursal B cells were approximately 25% and 60% of lymphocytes in chicks infected with USDA-STC and RB-4, respectively, whereas in control birds, B cells constituted 99% of bursal lymphocytes. This reduction in the proportions of bursal B cells was associated with an infiltration of T cells. In the spleen, IBDV infection also reduced the percentage of B cells and increased the percentage of T cells. The differential effects of classic and variant IBDV infection on immune cell populations in lymphoid organs may explain the differences in clinical effects induced by these viruse

IKLIM MADRASAH TSANAWIYAH DI KOTA BANDAR LAMPUNG

ABSTRAK Iklim madrasah yang positif dan kondusif akan berdampak terhadap pencapaian tujuan pendidikan madrasah dengan efektif dan efisien. Oleh karena itu perlu kiranya melakukan penelitian lebih lanjut mengenai iklim madrasah tsanawiyah khususnya di Kota Bandar Lampung dengan rumusan masalah pokok bagaimana iklim MTs di Kota Bandar Lampung? sehingga tujuan utama dalam penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis iklim MTs di Kota Bandar Lampung. Penelitian ini adalah jenis penelitian deskriptif dengan menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di madrasah tsanawiyah yang ada di Kota Bandar Lampung berjumlah 30 MTs. Sumber data dipilih secara purposive dan bersifat snowball sampling, diantaranya adalah kepala MTs dan wakil-wakilnya, guru, orangtua peserta didik dan peserta didik. Pengumpulan data menggunakan teknik wawancara, observasi, dan dokumentasi, yang kemudian hasilnya dianalisis dengan melakukan triangulasi sumber, teknik, dan waktu. Hasil penelitian ditemukan bahwa: (1) Iklim Madrasah Tsanawiyah di Kota Bandar Lampung telah sesuai dengan kriteria aspek keamanan fisik dan sosial emosional (2) Iklim Madrasah tsanawiyah di Kota Bandar Lampung telah sesuai dengan kriteria aspek kegiatan belajar mengajar (3) Iklim Madrasah tsanawiyah di Kota madrasah telah sesuai dengan kriteria aspek sikap antar warga sekolah, dan (4) Iklim Madrasah tsanawiyah di Kota Bandar Lampung kurang memenuhi kriteria pada aspek lingkungan kelembagaan. Dari 4 (empat) unsur yang menjadi indikator madrasah yang memiliki iklim yang positif dan kondusif, pada aspek lingkungan kelembagaan madrasah tsanawiyah di Kota Bandar Lampung masih perlu ditingkatkan lagi, terutama dalam kebersihan, fasilitas, penataan ruang dan halaman madrasah, dan luas halaman madrasah. Berdasarkan temuan penelitian tersebut, maka kesimpulan yang diperoleh dalam penelitian ini adalah iklim madrasah tsanawiyah di Kota Bandar Lampung positif dan kondusif. Untuk semakin meningkatkan iklim madrasah tsanawiyah di Kota Bandar Lampung, ada beberapa hal yang harus perhatikan dan ditingkatkan oleh madrasah yaitu (1) peningkatan sarana dan prasarana madrasah yang memenuhi standar keamanan, keselamatan, dan kesehatan (2) pendidikan integratif, (3) kolaborasi lingkungan belajar, (4) peningkatan efektifitas pembelajaran, (5) peningkatan kedisiplinan, (6) peningkatan kepemimpinan kepala madrasah dan (7) peningkatan profesionalitas dan motivasi kerja guru. Kata Kunci: iklim, madrasah tsanawiyah iiiABSTRACT A positive and supportive madrasah climate will have an impact on the effective and efficient achievement of the objectives of madrasa education. Therefore, it is necessary to continue research on the climate of the madrasah tsanawiyah in particular in the city of Bandar Lampung with the formulation of the main problem of how the climate of MTs in the city of Bandar Lampung? the main objective of this study is therefore to analyze the climate of MTs in the city of Bandar Lampung. This research is a type of descriptive research using a qualitative approach. This research was carried out in the madrasah of Tsanawiyah in Bandar Lampung, for a total of 30 MTs. The data source was purposely chosen and a snowball sample, including the head of the MTs and their representatives, teachers, parents and pupils. Data collection uses interviewing, observation and documentation techniques, then the results are analyzed by triangulating sources, techniques and time. The results found that: (1) The climate of Madrasah Tsanawiyah in Bandar Lampung City has met the criteria for physical and social emotional safety aspects (2) The climate of Madrasah Tsanawiyah in Bandar Lampung City has met the criteria for aspects of teaching and learning activities (3) The climate of Madrasah Tsanawiyah in The madrasah city has met the criteria for the attitude aspect among school members, and (4) The climate of the Madrasah Tsanawiyah in the City of Bandar Lampung does not meet the criteria in the aspect of the institutional environment. Of the 4 (four) elements that are indicators of madrasahs that have a positive and conducive climate, the institutional environment of the Tsanawiyah madrasah in Bandar Lampung City still needs to be improved, especially in terms of cleanliness, facilities, spatial planning and madrasah yard, and the area of the madrasah yard. Based on the results of the study, the conclusion reached in this study is that the climate of the madrasah tsanawiyah in Bandar Lampung City is positive and favorable. To further improve the climate of the tsanawiyah madrasa in the city of Bandar Lampung, several elements must be taken into account and improved by the madrasa, namely (1) the improvement of the madrasa's facilities and infrastructure that meet the standards of safety, security and health (2) integrative education, (3) environmental collaboration learning, (4) increasing the effectiveness of learning, (5) increasing discipline, (6) increased leadership of the head of madrasa and (7) increased teacher professionalism and motivation to work. Keywords: climate, madrasah tsanawiyah ivﺪﻳﺮﺠﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟﺎﺑ ﻢﻴﻠﻌﺘﻟﺍ ﻑﺍﺪﻫﺃ ﻖﻴﻘﺤﺗ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺮﻴﺛﺄﺗ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻠﻟ ﺪﻋﺎﺴﻤﻟﺍﻭ ﻲﺑﺎﺠﻳﻹﺍ ﺥﺎﻨﻤﻠﻟ ﻥﻮﻜﻴﺳ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﺥﺎﻨﻣ ﻝﻮﺣ ﺙﺎﺤﺑﻷﺍ ﻦﻣ ﺪﻳﺰﻤﻟﺍ ءﺍﺮﺟﺇ ﻱﺭﻭﺮﻀﻟﺍ ﻦﻣ ، ﻚﻟﺬﻟ .ﻝﺎﻌﻓﻭ ﻝﺎﻌﻓ ﻞﻜﺸﺑ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﺥﺎﻨﻣ ﺔﻴﻔﻴﻜﻟ ﺔﻴﺴﻴﺋﺮﻟﺍ ﺔﻠﻜﺸﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﻏﺎﻴﺻ ﻊﻣ ، ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔﺻﺎﺧ ، ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺘﻟﺍ ﻞﻴﻠﺤﺗ ﻮﻫ ﺔﺳﺍﺭﺪﻟﺍ ﻩﺬﻫ ﻦﻣ ﻲﺴﻴﺋﺮﻟﺍ ﻑﺪﻬﻟﺍ ﻥﻮﻜﻳ ﺚﻴﺤﺑ ؟ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺗ . ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﺥﺎﻨﻣ 30 ﻲﻓ ﺚﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﺍﺬﻫ ءﺍﺮﺟﺇ ﻢﺗ .ﻲﻋﻮﻧ ﺞﻬﻨﻣ ﻡﺍﺪﺨﺘﺳﺎﺑ ﻲﻔﺻﻭ ﺚﺤﺑ ﻮﻫ ﺚﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﺍﺬﻫ ﻦﻋ ﺓﺭﺎﺒﻋ ﺖﻧﺎﻛﻭ ﺪﺼﻗ ﻦﻋ ﺕﺎﻧﺎﻴﺒﻟﺍ ﺭﺩﺎﺼﻣ ﺭﺎﻴﺘﺧﺍ ﻢﺗ .ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻮﻧﺎﺛ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﻪﻴﻤﻠﻌﻣﻭ ﻪﻴﻠﺜﻤﻣﻭ ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﺲﻴﺋﺭ ﻚﻟﺫ ﻲﻓ ﺎﻤﺑ ، ﺔﻌﻴﺒﻄﻟﺍ ﻲﻓ ﺞﻠﺜﻟﺍ ﺕﺍﺮﻛ ﻦﻣ ﺕﺎﻨﻴﻋ ﻖﻴﺛﻮﺘﻟﺍﻭ ﺔﻈﺣﻼﻤﻟﺍﻭ ﺔﻠﺑﺎﻘﻤﻟﺍ ﺕﺎﻴﻨﻘﺗ ﻡﺍﺪﺨﺘﺳﺎﺑ ﺕﺎﻧﺎﻴﺒﻟﺍ ﻊﻤﺟ .ﺏﻼﻄﻟﺍﻭ ﺏﻼﻄﻟﺍ ﺭﻮﻣﺃ ءﺎﻴﻟﻭﺃﻭ . ﺖﻗﻮﻟﺍﻭ ﺕﺎﻴﻨﻘﺘﻟﺍﻭ ﺭﺩﺎﺼﻤﻟﺍ ﺚﻴﻠﺜﺗ ﻖﻳﺮﻁ ﻦﻋ ﺞﺋﺎﺘﻨﻟﺍ ﻞﻴﻠﺤﺗ ﻢﺘﻳ ﻢﺛ ، ﻰﻓﻮﺘﺳﺍ ﺪﻗ ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﺥﺎﻨﻣ (1) :ﻥﺃ ﺞﺋﺎﺘﻨﻟﺍ ﺕﺪﺟﻭﻭ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺗ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﺥﺎﻨﻣ ﻰﻓﻮﺘﺳﺍ (2) ﺔﻴﻋﺎﻤﺘﺟﻻﺍﻭ ﺔﻳﺪﺴﺠﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻔﻁﺎﻌﻟﺍ ﺔﻣﻼﺴﻟﺍ ﺐﻧﺍﻮﺟ ﺮﻴﻳﺎﻌﻣ ﺮﻴﻳﺎﻌﻣ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﺖﻓﻮﺘﺳﺍ ﺪﻘﻟ ﻢﻠﻌﺘﻟﺍﻭ ﻢﻴﻠﻌﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﻄﺸﻧﺃ ﺐﻧﺍﻮﺟ ﺮﻴﻳﺎﻌﻣ ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﺥﺎﻨﻣ (4) ﻭ ، ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟﺍ ءﺎﻀﻋﺃ ﻦﻴﺑ ﻲﻛﻮﻠﺴﻟﺍ ﺐﻧﺎﺠﻟﺍ . ﺔﻴﺴﺳﺆﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﺌﻴﺒﻟﺍ ﺐﻧﺎﺟ ﻲﻓ ﺮﻴﻳﺎﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﻲﺒﻠﻳ ﻻ ﺥﺎﻨﻤﻟﺍ ﺕﺍﺫ ﺔﻴﻨﻳﺪﻟﺍ ﺱﺭﺍﺪﻤﻠﻟ ﺕﺍﺮﺷﺆﻣ ﺮﺒﺘﻌﺗ ﻲﺘﻟﺍ (ﺔﻌﺑﺭﻷﺍ) ﺔﻌﺑﺭﻷﺍ ﺮﺻﺎﻨﻌﻟﺍ ﻦﻴﺑ ﻦﻣ ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟ ﺔﻴﺴﺳﺆﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﺌﻴﺒﻟﺍ ﻝﺍﺰﺗ ﻻ ، ﻞﻀﻔﻤﻟﺍﻭ ﻲﺑﺎﺠﻳﻹﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﺣﺎﺳﻭ ﻲﻧﺎﻜﻤﻟﺍ ﻂﻴﻄﺨﺘﻟﺍﻭ ﻖﻓﺍﺮﻤﻟﺍﻭ ﺔﻓﺎﻈﻨﻟﺍ ﺚﻴﺣ ﻦﻣ ﺎﻤﻴﺳ ﻻ ، ﻦﻴﺴﺤﺘﻟﺍ ﻰﻟﺇ ﺔﺟﺎﺤﺑ . ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﺣﺎﺳ ﺔﻘﻄﻨﻣﻭ ﺔﺳﺍﺭﺪﻟﺍ ﻩﺬﻫ ﻲﻓ ﻪﻴﻟﺇ ﻞﺻﻮﺘﻟﺍ ﻢﺗ ﻱﺬﻟﺍ ﺝﺎﺘﻨﺘﺳﻻﺍ ﻥﺈﻓ ، ﺔﺳﺍﺭﺪﻟﺍ ﻩﺬﻫ ﺞﺋﺎﺘﻧ ﻰﻠﻋ ًءﺎﻨﺑ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟﺍ ﺥﺎﻨﻣ ﻦﻴﺴﺤﺗ ﺓﺩﺎﻳﺰﻟ .ﺪﻋﺎﺴﻣﻭ ﻲﺑﺎﺠﻳﺇ ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻭﺎﻨﺴﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻣ ﺥﺎﻨﻣ ﻥﺃ ﻮﻫ ﺎﻬﻨﻴﺴﺤﺗﻭ ﺎﻬﺑ ﻡﺎﻤﺘﻫﻻﺍ ﺐﺠﻳ ﻲﺘﻟﺍ ءﺎﻴﺷﻷﺍ ﻦﻣ ﺪﻳﺪﻌﻟﺍ ﻙﺎﻨﻫ ، ﺞﻧﻮﺒﻣﻻ ﺭﺪﻨﺑ ﺔﻨﻳﺪﻣ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻳﻮﻧﺎﺜﻟﺍ ﺮﻴﻳﺎﻌﻣ ﻲﺒﻠﺗ ﻲﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺘﺤﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻨﺒﻟﺍﻭ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟﺍ ﻖﻓﺍﺮﻣ ﻦﻴﺴﺤﺗ (1) ﻲﻫﻭ ، ﺔﻴﻨﻳﺪﻟﺍ ﺱﺭﺍﺪﻤﻟﺍ ﻞﺒﻗ ﻦﻣ ﺓﺩﺎﻳﺯ (4) ، ﻢﻠﻌﺘﻟﺍ ﻲﺌﻴﺒﻟﺍ ﻥﻭﺎﻌﺘﻟﺍ (3) ، ﻞﻣﺎﻜﺘﻤﻟﺍ ﻢﻴﻠﻌﺘﻟﺍ (2) ﺔﺤﺼﻟﺍﻭ ﺔﻣﻼﺴﻟﺍﻭ ﺔﻣﻼﺴﻟﺍ ﺓﺩﺎﻳﺯ (7) ، ﺔﻴﻣﻼﺳﻹﺍ ﺱﺭﺍﺪﻤﻟﺍ ﻱﺮﻳﺪﻣ ﺓﺩﺎﻴﻗ ﺓﺩﺎﻳﺯ (6) ، ﻁﺎﺒﻀﻧﻻﺍ ﺓﺩﺎﻳﺯ (5) ، ﻢﻠﻌﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻟﺎﻌﻓ . ﻞﻤﻌﻟﺍ ﺰﻴﻔﺤﺗﻭ ﻢﻠﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻓﺍﺮﺘﺣﺍ ﺔﻴﻋﺎﻨﺼﻟﺍ ﺔﺳﺭﺪﻤﻟﺍ ، ﺥﺎﻨﻤﻟﺍ :ﺔﻴﺣﺎﺘﻔﻣ ﺕﺎﻤﻠ

Time Course Investigation of the Dermal Leukocyte Response to Lipoteichoic Acid in Chickens

Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is a cell-wall polymer in Gram-positive bacteria that stimulates inflammation. Few studies have investigated in vivo immune response to LTA, and none of the in vivo studies have been performed in birds. For this project, the pulp (a skin derivative) of growing feathers (GF) of chickens was used to investigate the in vivo effects of intradermally injected LTA. In Study 1, GF of chickens were injected with 10 μL of differing concentrations of LTA (0.1, 1.0, 10, 100 or 250 μg LTA/mL; 3 chickens/dose). Growing feathers were plucked before injection (0 h) and at 6, 24, 48, and 72 h post-injection and frozen before staining using immunohistochemistry for visual inspection of leukocyte infiltration. Ten μg/mL LTA was found to be the optimal concentration to stimulate inflammation. In Study 2, GF were injected with 10 μL of either 10 μg/mL LTA (0.1 μg LTA/GF, 12 GF/bird, n = 8) or PBS (vehicle; n = 4). GF were collected at 0, 6, 24, 48, and 72 h. For each time point, pulp cell suspensions were prepared and immunofluorescently stained with a panel of chicken-leukocyte-specific monoclonal antibodies. Cell populations were analyzed via flow cytometry, revealing elevated levels (% pulp cells) in total leukocytes, monocytes/macrophages, and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class-II expressing cells in GF injected with LTA when compared to the control. Infiltration of lymphocytes and heterophils was not different between treatment groups. This study suggests that the inflammatory response to LTA in chickens is characterized primarily by recruitment of monocytes/macrophages to the site of inflammation

Effects of a Low Crude Protein Diet With and Without Spirulina platensis Inclusion on White Blood Cell Profiles in Broilers

Spirulina microalgae is an alternative protein source under consideration for feed formulation in commercial broiler production. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a low crude protein (LCP) diet and a LCP diet formulated with 100 g/kg Spirulina (LCP-SP) on blood cell measurements in broilers. One-day-old Ross 708 male broilers were assigned to three dietary treatments: a standard crude protein (SCP), the LCP, or the LCP-SP diet, with five pens/treatment. When the chickens were 37-days old, blood samples were obtained from 2 birds/pen. Each blood sample was used to determine 1) the concentrations of white blood cells (WBC), thrombocytes, red blood cells (RBC), hemoglobin, and hematocrit by automated hematology; 2) the proportions among WBC populations by microscopic evaluation of \u3e300 WBC on Wright-stained blood smears; and 3) the proportions among lymphocyte-subsets by immunofluorescent staining and flow-cytometric cell population analysis. Except for monocytes, none of the blood cell measurements were affected (P \u3e 0.05) by diet. The LCP diet resulted in increased (P ≤ 0.05) monocyte concentration and proportion compared to the SCP diet, indicating heightened inflammatory activity with lower dietary protein content. The LCP-SP diet reversed the effect of the LCP diet, resulting in monocyte concentrations and proportions not different (P \u3e 0.05) from those of the SCP diet. The ability of Spirulina microalgae to maintain normal WBC profiles in broilers fed the LCP diet is a promising sign for its use as a proteinaceous feed component without compromising the health of the bird