The Role of Marine-Protected Areas as A Life Support for Fishery Communities: Indonesian Perspective

This chapter examines relevant literature on marine-protected areas (MPAs) development and their benefit to support fishery communities in Indonesia. The MPAs concepts experienced since Indonesia’s kingdoms eras, continuing the Dutch Colonial period, the next post-independence, and the period from 2000 to the present. One of the functions of MPAs is as a source of livelihood for fishery communities. The size of MPAs in the year 2000 was around 2.6 million hectares (ha) and significantly increased in 2021 up to 23.3 million ha. The size of MPAs is growing along with forming the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. The Indonesian government targets MPAs of 32.5 million ha or 10% of the territorial sea of the archipelago. The involvement of stakeholders in the utilization and management of MPAs ensures the area’s sustainability and environmental safety. It improves the welfare of fishermen through the availability of fish resources. Therefore, in the purpose of protecting ecological assets, even though the literature sources were limited, our finding suggests that many MPAs involving local communities and traditional management can become the foundation of the fishery community’s livelihood

Evaluating annual severe coral bleaching risk for marine protected areas across Indonesia

Coral reefs face an uncertain future under global climate change, with thermal-induced bleaching increasing in frequency such that corals will soon experience annual severe bleaching (ASB). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are therefore becoming increasingly important as a conservation tool. Here we evaluate (i) Indonesia’s coral reefs’ spatial variation in ASB, (ii) whether reefs projected to have a later onset of ASB (i.e. possible climate refugia) are protected within MPAs, and (iii) the ASB risk profiles for reefs related to MPAs receiving priority investments. Our results highlight considerable variability across Indonesia’s reefs being at risk of ASB. The ASB risk before 2028 is greater for coral reefs protected by MPAs versus those outside MPA boundaries. The ASB risk before 2025 is greater for coral reefs protected by priority MPAs versus those protected by non-priority MPAs. Overall, our results show that only ∼45% of the coral reef areas that are currently located within MPAs will likely act as thermal refugia (ASB > 2044). This is unsurprising given that the MPA network in Indonesia has been established over many decades, with most MPAs designated before suitable bleaching risk projections were available to inform MPA placement. Our results highlight the scope to further incorporate potential climate refugia for reefs into new MPA designations. This study also provides strategic information, which can support the development of Indonesia’s long-term MPA and coral reef conservation strategy to effectively manage, mitigate, and adapt to the impacts of climate change on coral reefs

Evaluating annual severe coral bleaching risk for marine protected areas across Indonesia

Coral reefs face an uncertain future under global climate change, with thermal-induced bleaching increasing in frequency such that corals will soon experience annual severe bleaching (ASB). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are therefore becoming increasingly important as a conservation tool. Here we evaluate (i) Indonesia’s coral reefs’ spatial variation in ASB, (ii) whether reefs projected to have a later onset of ASB (i.e. possible climate refugia) are protected within MPAs, and (iii) the ASB risk profiles for reefs related to MPAs receiving priority investments. Our results highlight considerable variability across Indonesia’s reefs being at risk of ASB. The ASB risk before 2028 is greater for coral reefs protected by MPAs versus those outside MPA boundaries. The ASB risk before 2025 is greater for coral reefs protected by priority MPAs versus those protected by non-priority MPAs. Overall, our results show that only ∼45% of the coral reef areas that are currently located within MPAs will likely act as thermal refugia (ASB > 2044). This is unsurprising given that the MPA network in Indonesia has been established over many decades, with most MPAs designated before suitable bleaching risk projections were available to inform MPA placement. Our results highlight the scope to further incorporate potential climate refugia for reefs into new MPA designations. This study also provides strategic information, which can support the development of Indonesia’s long-term MPA and coral reef conservation strategy to effectively manage, mitigate, and adapt to the impacts of climate change on coral reefs

Shapefile with the average year of onset of annual severe bleaching (ASB) events in all the marine protected areas (MPAs) of Indonesia designated in January 2020

This shapefile/vector shows you the projected year beyond which a coral reef is expected to experience severe bleaching conditions annually based on the reef being exposed to at least 8 Degree Heating Weeks (DHW) (UNEP 2020). This vector allows you to identify which Indonesian MPAs might act as thermal refugia for coral reefs. More information can be found in De Clippele et al. (2022) Evaluating annual severe coral bleaching risk for marine protected areas across Indonesia, Marine Policy

Percentage of destroyed and declining reef in each species' range vs Red List Category.

<p>Center line = median value, box boundaries = 25^th and 75^th percentiles, whiskers = 10^th and 90^th percentiles, black dots = outliers.</p

Feeding classification of parrotfishes and surgeonfishes based on dietary targets and post-digestive processes.

<p>Feeding classification of parrotfishes and surgeonfishes based on dietary targets and post-digestive processes.</p

Percentage of parrotfishes and surgeonfishes in each habitat type.

<p>Percentage of parrotfishes and surgeonfishes in each habitat type.</p

Number of species threatened by fisheries.

<p>Number of species threatened by fisheries.</p

Global species richness patterns.

<p>a. Species richness of parrotfishes of the world. b. Species richness of surgeonfishes of the world.</p

Regional Red List Assessments of commercially important parrotfishes and surgeonfishes in the Coral Triangle (EN = Endangered, VU = Vulnerable, NT = Near Threatened, LC = Least Concern, DD = Data Deficient).

<p>Regional Red List Assessments of commercially important parrotfishes and surgeonfishes in the Coral Triangle (EN = Endangered, VU = Vulnerable, NT = Near Threatened, LC = Least Concern, DD = Data Deficient).</p