Project InitiativE-BW - Real-world driving, energy demand, user experiences and emissions of electrified vehicle fleets

Policy makers see electrified vehicles (EV) as one instrument to reduce local air pollution and also towards a mitigation of climate change. It is known that the “real driving” energy demand of conventional vehicles is significantly higher than the norm consumption. However, there is limited knowledge for the real-world energy demand and charging patterns of EV fleets. Furthermore, first user experiences are important for the uptake of the electrified vehicles. There are not many studies in this field either. Last but not least, the environmental effects of electrified vehicles should be compared with the conventional vehicles in order to assure the positive effect. There are several studies, which compared the well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions from conventional and electrified vehicles. However, most of these studies took the yearly electricity mix as basis for the calculations. Therefore, this paper aims to close this knowledge gap by measuring the energy consumption of the electrified vehicle fleets with vehicle data loggers. Furthermore, information on user experiences are gathered by questionnaires. The intentions and expectations are compared and contrasted with the real world driving behaviour of the users. Within the government funded project InitiativE-BW, which started in summer 2014, more than 44 battery electric vehicles (BEV) have been equipped with data loggers in the German federal state of Baden-Württemberg. The project consortium consists of leasing companies, a research institute and a public relations manager to promote the project in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg. The data loggers are intended to run until the end of 2016. The EVs are mostly used by commercial fleets e.g. in social services, car sharing, IT-services and municipalities. The data logged includes hours of operation, state of charge (SoC), mileages driven, speed statistics and GPS information. First results show that varying ambient temperatures have a significant influence on the BEV energy consumption. Average energy consumption is up to 45% higher during winter months. The influence of the charging behaviour of the users is analysed to evaluate the CO2 emissions of the vehicles based on hourly electricity consumption and specific emission profiles of the available power sources, which might significantly deviate from the yearly electricity mix of the country. Among all participants of InitiativE-BW, expectations and experiences with leased EVs are repeatedly evaluated through questionnaires. The questionnaires aim on user costs, electricity tariffs, expected mileages and predicted needs for electric ranges. So far, survey results indicate that EV technical benefits such as their pronounced acceleration are not commonly known. The paper / presentation will present the project itself and the results of measurements and questionnaires analysis until mid of 2016

Economic and environmental analysis of solar water heater utilisation in Gauteng Province, South Africa

This paper focuses on the energy economics and environmental impacts of solar water heaters (SWH) in the Gauteng Province and compares the results with other technology options for residential water heating with regard to the different income groups. The critical energy situation in South Africa and the highly coal dependent energy generation demonstrates the need to shift to a more sustainable way of living. The residential sector proves to be an optimal starting point to implement new technologies, especially for water heating. The residential hot water demand calculation shows that the annual demand in Gauteng is about 188 million cubic meters. In order to satisfy this demand, different technologies are investigated in this paper, where SWHs lie in focus. Due to the vast income inequality in Gauteng, and also in South Africa, it is obvious that there cannot be one single optimal solution suitable to all households. Therefore, this paper focuses on the differentiation of the residential sector into income groups to show the divergence in warm water demand and the applicability of alternative technologies. In order to analyse appropriate solutions for all income groups, low-cost alternatives are also analysed. The economic analysis shows that although SWHs have higher investment costs than conventional technologies, the payback periods are relatively short (between 3 and 4 years) for high and mid income groups. The payback periods will be even shorter when the planned electricity price tariff increase comes into effect. Furthermore, SWH utilisation has the additional effect of reducing the overall electricity demand up to 70% and greenhouse gas emissions significantly. In addition, SWHs are the most cost-effective water heating technology to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for mid and high income groups with negative abatement costs.It is concluded that the SWHs are the most suitable option to decrease fossil energy consumption and reduce the household’s expenditure for energy services, especially for mid and high income groups. For lower income groups the utilisation of solar energy can increase the access to energy services and living quality and, therewith, lessen the financial burden to meet their energy needs

Economic and environmental analysis of solar water heater utilisation in Gauteng Province, South Africa

This paper focuses on the energy economics and environmental impacts of solar water heaters (SWH) in the Gauteng Province and compares the results with other technology options for residential water heating with regard to the different income groups. The critical energy situation in South Africa and the highly coal dependent energy generation demonstrates the need to shift to a more sustainable way of living. The residential sector proves to be an optimal starting point to implement new technologies, especially for water heating. The residential hot water demand calculation shows that the annual demand in Gauteng is about 188 million cubic meters. In order to satisfy this demand, different technologies are investigated in this paper, where SWHs lie in focus. Due to the vast income inequality in Gauteng, and also in South Africa, it is obvious that there cannot be one single optimal solution suitable to all households. Therefore, this paper focuses on the differentiation of the residential sector into income groups to show the divergence in warm water demand and the applicability of alternative technologies. In order to analyse appropriate solutions for all income groups, low-cost alternatives are also analysed. The economic analysis shows that although SWHs have higher investment costs than conventional technologies, the payback periods are relatively short (between 3 and 4 years) for high and mid income groups. The payback periods will be even shorter when the planned electricity price tariff increase comes into effect. Furthermore, SWH utilisation has the additional effect of reducing the overall electricity demand up to 70% and greenhouse gas emissions significantly. In addition, SWHs are the most cost-effective water heating technology to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for mid and high income groups with negative abatement costs. It is concluded that the SWHs are the most suitable option to decrease fossil energy consumption and reduce the household’s expenditure for energy services, especially for mid and high income groups. For lower income groups the utilisation of solar energy can increase the access to energy services and living quality and, therewith, lessen the financial burden to meet their energy needs

2 boyutlu bir euler çözücüsüne dönüş eklenmesi

The aim of this study is to simulate the unsteady flow around rotating or oscillating airfoils. This will help to understand the rotor aerodynamics, which is essential in turbines and propellers. In this study, a pre-existing Euler solver with finite volume method that is developed in the Mechanical Engineering Department of Middle East Technical University (METU) is improved. This structured pre-existing code was developed for 2-D internal flows with Lax-Wendroff scheme. The improvement consist of firstly, the generalization of the code to external flow; secondly, implementation of first order Roe̕s flux splitting scheme and lastly, the implementation of rotation with the help of Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) method. For the verification of steady and unsteady results of the code, the experimental and computational results from literature are utilized. For steady conditions, subsonic and transonic cases are investigated with different angle of attacks. For the verification of unsteady results of the code, oscillating airfoil case is used. The flow is assumed as inviscid, unsteady, adiabatic and two dimensional. The gravity is neglected and the air is taken as ideal gas. The developed code is run on computers housed in METU Mechanical Engineering Department Computational Fluid Dynamics High Performance Computing (CFD-HPC) Laboratory.M.S. - Master of Scienc

Die zukünftige Bedeutung von alternativen Antrieben und Kraftstoffen für den deutschen Transportsektor : eine modelbasierte Szenarioanalyse technischer, ökonomischer und ökologischer Aspekte mit einem Fokus auf dem Straßenverkehr

The transport sector is facing the challenges of satisfying the ever increasing transport demand on the one hand and achieving greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets without compromising economic development on the other hand. There are various alternative fuels and powertrains which might play a role in the future of the German transport sector. Amongst these options, biofuels are considered to help lower GHG emissions. However, they are severely criticized to create an additional strain for the energy system and particularly for the transport sector with land area requirement for energy crop production, which may imply a competition with food production. This study aims to assess the future role of alternative fuels and powertrains in the German transport sector in terms of their costs, efficiencies, GHG emissions and land area requirement for energy crops. To fulfill this aim, a techno-economic analysis of all relevant fuels and powertrain options was performed and a model based approach was employed. The utilized model belongs to the TIMES (The Integrated MARKAL EFOM System) family and is a bottom-up linear cost optimization energy system model. A scenario analysis was employed in order to assess the effect of different technological, economic, environmental and political conditions on the overall system. The results of the scenario analysis indicated that the transport system will still be dominated by conventional powertrains in 2030. Alternative powertrains are projected to play only a secondary role until 2030. It is not expected that fuel cell or battery electric passenger cars will be introduced into the market until 2030 in Germany. Nevertheless, hybrid electric powertrains have to be used in the German passenger car sector under ambitious GHG emission reduction targets and high oil prices. The introduction of alternative powertrains (such as hybrid electric and fuel cell powertrain) is much more likely in the bus sector (especially for public buses) than in passenger cars or in the road freight sector. Furthermore conventional fuels are expected to remain an important part of the German transport system until 2030. However, not only conventional fuels will be utilized in the future, but also biofuels and hydrogen are required. It is concluded that the transport sector should not be the first sector to reduce GHG emissions within an overall GHG emission mitigation strategy. However, with the ambitious GHG emission reduction targets (such as self-commitment of the German government) some contributions should also come from the transport sector.Der Transportsektor steht vor der Herausforderung, einerseits den steigenden Transportbedarf zu befriedigen und andererseits die Treibhausgasreduktionsziele zu erreichen, ohne seine wirtschaftliche Entwicklung zu gefährden. Verschiedene Alternativkraftstoffe und alternative Antriebssysteme könnten im zukünftigen Transportsektor Deutschlands eine Rolle spielen. Biokraftstoffe als eine dieser Optionen werden als Maßnahme zur Verringerung der Treibhausgasemissionen angesehen. Sie stehen jedoch in der Kritik, eine zusätzliche Belastung für das Energiesystem, insbesondere für den Transportsektor zu schaffen, wo der Flächenverbrauch für den Energiepflanzenanbau im Wettbewerb mit der Lebensmittelproduktion stehen könnte. Diese Studie hat zum Ziel, die zukünftige Rolle von Alternativkraftstoffen und antriebssystemen im deutschen Transportsektor hinsichtlich ihrer Kosten, Effizienz, Treibhausgasemissionen und Flächenverbrauchs für Energiepflanzen zu bewerten. Um dieses Ziel zu erfüllen, wurde eine technisch-ökonomische Analyse aller relevanten Kraftstoff- und Antriebsoptionen durchgeführt und ein modellbasierter Ansatz angewendet. Das verwendete Modell gehört zur Familie der TIMES (The Integrated MARKAL EFOM System) und ist ein bottom-up, lineares, kostenoptimierendes Energiesystemmodell. Eine Szenarioanalyse wurde zur Bewertung der Auswirkungen verschiedener technologischer, ökonomischer, politischer und Umweltfaktoren auf das Gesamtsystem eingesetzt. Die Ergebnisse der Szenarioanalyse zeigen, dass das Transportsystem 2030 noch von konventionellen Antrieben dominiert sein wird. Alternativantriebe werden bis 2030 voraussichtlich nur eine sekundäre Rolle spielen. Es wird nicht erwartet, dass Brennstoffzellen oder batteriebetriebene PKW vor 2030 in den deutschen Markt eingeführt werden. Dessen ungeachtet müssen bei ambitionierten Treibhausgasreduktionszielen und hohen Ölpreisen hybride, elektrische Antriebe im deutschen PKW-Sektor eingesetzt werden. Die Einführung alternativer Antriebssysteme (wie elektrohybride und Brennstoffzellenantriebe) ist im Bussektor (vor allem öffentliche Busse) viel wahrscheinlicher als im PKW- oder Straßengüterverkehr. Es wird erwartet, dass konventionelle Kraftstoffe weiterhin ein wichtiger Teil des deutschen Transportsystems bis 2030 bleiben. Trotzdem werden zukünftig neben konventionellen Kraftstoffen allein auch Biokraftstoffe und Wasserstoff benötigt. Daraus folgt, dass der Transportsektor nicht der erste Sektor zur Reduzierung der Treibhausgasemissionen innerhalb der gesamten Emissionsvermeidungsstrategie sein sollte. Bei den ehrgeizigen Emissionsreduktionszielen (wie der Selbstverpflichtung der deutschen Regierung) sollten trotzdem einige Beiträge auch aus dem Transportsektor kommen

EFFECTIVENESS OF MONETARY AND NON-MONETARY INCENTIVES ON THE PURCHASE OF PLUG-IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES CONSIDERING NATIONAL AND REGIONAL FRAMEWORKS WITHIN THE EUROPEAN UNION

This paper investigates country-specific total cost of ownership of electric mobility for different vehicle owners and usage patterns. A utility function approach is used to incorporate non-monetary aspects

Verkehrsentwicklung und Umwelt: Zwischenbericht Technologie-Monitoring

Verkehrsentwicklung und Umwelt II - Zwischenbericht des AP6100: Technologie-Monitorin

Optimizing battery sizes of plug-in hybrid and extended range electric vehicles for different user types

There are ambitious greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) targets for the manufacturers of light duty vehicles. To reduce the GHG emissions, plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) and extended range electric vehicle (EREV) are promising powertrain technologies. However, the battery is still a very critical component due to the high production cost and heavy weight. This paper introduces a holistic approach for the optimization of the battery size of PHEVs and EREVs under German market conditions. The assessment focuses on the heterogeneity across drivers, by analyzing the impact of different driving profiles on the optimal battery setup from total cost of ownership (TCO) perspective. The results show that the battery size has a significant effect on the TCO. For an average German driver (15,000 km/a), battery capacities of 4 kWh (PHEV) and 6 kWh (EREV) are cost optimal in 2020. However, these values vary strongly with the driving profile of the user. Moreover, the optimal battery size is also affected by external factors, e.g. electricity and fuel prices or battery production cost. Therefore, car manufacturers should develop a modular design for their batteries, which allows adapting the storage capacity to meet the individual customer requirements instead of “one size fits all”

Total Cost of Ownership Analysis for Passenger Cars in Turkey

Being a developing country, the number of vehicles in the stock and vehicle ownership per person are increasing rapidly over the last few years in Turkey. In Turkey, the one-time purchase taxes implemented on vehicles are significantly high (up to 189% of the purchase price without tax), which might affect the choice of vehicle powertrain. Furthermore, the fuel price levels are one of the highest in the world due to the implemented fuel taxes especially for gasoline and diesel. As a result of these taxation policies, 42% of the current vehicle stock is powered by liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) fuel, which is the highest LPG share in the world. Therefore, it is of highest interest to analyse the cost structure of Turkish passenger car sector. The aim of this study is to develop a TCO model for Turkey’s passenger car sector. The model includes different powertrains (Gasoline, Diesel, and LPG); different vehicle segments (A, B, C, D, and E) and is applicable to different annual mileages. A vehicle’s ownership cost includes; initial purchase cost, fuel expenses, motor vehicle tax, maintenance cost, and insurances. All of those cost components varies along ownership period, mileage and technical specifications of the vehicle. In this study, 71 different vehicle models were analyzed, taking vehicle sales figures into consideration, over which representative vehicles were specified for each segment and powertrain by median function. Then, a detailed data collection and analysis were made to determine ownership costs for each vehicle segment and powertrain separately. Furthermore, annuity factors were utilized over those variable costs throughout the ownership period. Resale values of vehicles were also considered in different cases. The results show that the TCO in Turkey for conventional vehicles (including LPG) is dominated by taxes. Due to the high automobile purchase taxes, it is observed that the ratio of taxes to sum of TCO for class E vehicles increases up to 55% whereas ownership cost per km rises up to 6 TRY2014/km. The results reveal that for the case of class C with 4 years of ownership with resale, LPG becomes more advantageous over gasoline after 7,500 km annual mileage, whereas the diesel vehicles become economicaly feasible after 20,000 km annual mileage over LPG vehicles. TCO for medium segment vehicles is lower than half of the ownership cost for large segment vehicles due to the high taxes. This taxation policy might explain the tendency towards smaller vehicles in Turkish market. Furthermore, for a customer with an average mileage, LPG vehicles have the lowest costs. Considering the results for different mileages and ownership periods, LPG powered and small segment vehicles seem to dominate the market for a significant time. In the future, the developed model will be extended to include electrified powertrains. With the extended model, the economic advantages or disadvantages of alternative powertrains in Turkish vehicle fleet might be observed