Contradictions in standardization: the case of block irrigation in smallholder schemes in Zimbabwe

A position paper on how water usage is poorly managed by most rural smallholder irrigation farmers hence the need for well managed water conservation schemes like practicing block irrigation on the plots.In many smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe poor water use is cited as one common problem. Water is reportedly lost during conveyance, distribution and application in the field. The causes of this problem are varied. Most of the losses are said to be at or below the field channel gate (Pearce and Armstrong, 1990: 18). Inequitable distribution of water between blocks, between head and tail users along canals and differential water distribution at field level have been documented (Pazvakavambwa, 1984a; Pearce and Armstrong, 1990; Donkor. 1991). Over- irrigating has also been cited as another problem, particularly in gravity schemes (Makadho, 1993). These studies, in various ways, have emphasized the need for solutions to be found to the water-management problem in smallholder irrigation. Agritex, the government department with the mandate to develop smallholder irrigation in the country, alongside its extension service mandate, has taken steps.to address poor water use. One strategy that has been employed is the block system of irrigation. This system is currently used in most ‘new’ schemes constructed after 1985, in those that are under rehabilitation as well as in other ‘old’ schemes that are being re-organized. There are perceived advantages associated with this system. These advantages, gleaned by the author from interviews and discussions with a number of Agritex engineers and extensionists, fall into three categories. The most frequently advanced reason is efficient water use through accurate irrigation scheduling. The second advantage which relates to economic aspects of crop production is that it is easier to market the crop produce. Thirdly, block irrigation is conceived as making crop rotations easier to implement which ultimately results in improved maintenance of soil fertility. A related advantage is the possibility of better past and disease control

Achieving a More Egalitarian Water Allocation System in Zimbabwe

A number of major changes have affected water use in Zimbabwe. These include an increased urban population putting heavy pressure on the inadequate and poorly maintained water infrastructure resulting in serious environmental concerns including deteriorating water quality; a land reform programme that has dramatically reduced the number of large-scale farmers and given rise to new smallholder and medium farmers in resettlement schemes and an increase in mining that has become an important water user and a significant polluter. The rural communal areas comprising almost half the land area and population have also been neglected. With the current water crises in Zimbabwe there is a clear opportunity to address these issues and to establish a more efficient, effective and equitable allocation of water between the wide range of existing and emerging water users

Towards Local Management Of Mineral Resources In Zimbabwe An Analysis Of Opportunities And Constraints

A CASS Working Paper on managing locally Zimbabwe's mineral resources.In Zimbabwe today, the State - through its various agencies - is the dominant player in die mining sector, from issuing prospecting licenses right up to marketing. The Mines and Minerals Act (chapter 21: 05) vests authority to administer granting of prospecting rights, acquisition of mining claims and payments of levies in the Mining Affairs Board, a body appointed by the Minister of Mines, Environment and Tourism. The Mineral Marketing Corporation of Zimbabwe Act of 1982 resulted in the formation of the Mineral Marketing Corporation of Zimbabwe which is the sole marketing and selling agent for all minerals exported out of Zimbabwe, except gold and silver, which fall under the control of the Reserve Bank. The bulk of mineral revenue accrues to the government ahead of Rural District Councils (RDCs) who have responsibilities towards road maintenance and provision of other services, and local communities who bear the brunt of environmental damage due to mining activities. A study into the structure of revenue sharing showed that RDCs obtained less than 0.1 % of the revenue (Owen and Maponga, 1996). This revenue is from two main sources. In terms of section 96(1 Ob) of the Rural District Councils Act, Chapter 29: 13, RDCs may charge levies to owners of mining locations situated on rural land in their areas. The levy is based on either the number of employees or output in tonnes in the case of precious metals. The levy is in the form of unit tax. Section 188 of the Mines and Minerals Act entitles RDCs to receive landowners' fees from mining activities in their areas. This is because, although RDCs are not the legal owners of the communal land under their jurisdiction (the land belongs to the state represented by the president in terms of section 4 of the Communal Land Act, Chapter 20: 04), sub-section (7) of section 188 specifically provides that they are regarded as the landowners for the purpose of receiving landowners' fees. The fees are pegged at $1.50 per hectare for an operational mine and$0.60 for a non-operational one. Mining royalties are not collected in Zimbabwe - they were last collected in 1975 as a measure to attract investment in the mining sector.“This publication has been possible through the support of the US Agency for International Development (USAID) under the Natural Resources Management Project (NRMP) Phase II - Zimbabwe

The Flow of IWRM in SADC: The Role of Regional Dynamics, Advocacy Networks and External Actors

This article explores the entry and spread of IWRM in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region. It traces how the idea of IWRM was pro moted and sustained throughout the region by mapping key events, actors and networks that were involved in promoting the approach. It highlights the importance of regional networks in promoting IWRM and shows how regional dynamics, playing out at the inter face between the global and local levels, influenced the adoption/adaptation and spread of IWRM. The article finds that the idea of IWRM 'hit the ground running' in SADC due to several contributing factors. These include: historical political connections between the member countries; historically rooted well established channels and connections with bilateral and multilateral donors; the success of networks such as the Global Water Partnership and WaterNet whose mandate was to promote the concept; and the fact that two-thirds of the region’s population live in transboundary basins with IWRM providing a suitable hook for transboundary cooperation, often inspired by European models. The article further argues that IWRM thrived because of strong donor agendas that were adapted by key SADC actors to suit strategic interests. It thus provided a platform for complex politically charged negotiations to reconcile apparently divergent goals such as infrastructure vs management and regional vs national interests. The practice of IWRM in the region is very much shaped by a conflation of regional, national and donor interests and has now acquired a life of its own, despite changing donor priorities.publishedVersio

Farmer-initiated irrigation furrows: observations from the eastern highlands

A research paper on farmer - initiated irrigation furrows by Zimbabwe's smallholder rural farmers.Important for the contemporary debate in relation to irrigation development in Zimbabwe is the realisation that during colonial times and after independence, informal irrigation furrows were constructed and operated by smallholder farmers. This is in spite of active discouragement by government apparatus for the greater part of this century. This chapter provides some evidence of the worth and spread of ‘informal’ irrigation furrows in the Eastern Highlands. Such furrows should be recognised for their important productive capacities, and for the pool of managerial experience to which they give rise. We argue here that a lot can be learnt by a close examination of these furrows. The preliminary findings presented in this chapter, though limited to the Eastern Highlands, hint at their potential, and have relevance for the impending changes of the Water Act, the de-centralisation of the water sector embodied in the new Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), and for the turning over of financial and water management responsibilities in government- initiated schemes to farmers

ICT-Based Identification and Characterisation of Small Reservoirs in the Limpopo River Basin in Zimbabwe

Semi-arid conditions that prevail in the Limpopo basin in general and Zimbabwe in particular emphasise the importance of water storage. In this respect small reservoirs play a critical role in sustaining rural livelihoods. However, the management of small reservoirs in Zimbabwe is negatively affected by missing or poorly coordinated information relating to such key attributes as location, capacity, and environmental condition. A study was undertaken to identify and characterise small reservoirs in the Limpopo river basin in Zimbabwe. The objective of the study was to identify small reservoirs and characterise them in terms of capacity, and chlorophyll-a and turbidity indices, as proxies for measuring environmental degradation of catchments in which these are located. The study was carried out in Gwanda district that is located in South West Zimbabwe. Identification was done by processing Landsat TM 4-5 images of February-March and April-May 2009, using Geographical Information Systems. Time and cost considerations were the main factors in the selection of the technology and the images that were used. Field inspections were used to validate selected parameters from February to April 2011. A total of 256 small reservoirs, with an estimated total capacity of 17 million m3, were identified. The capacities of reservoirs were found to vary widely from around 4,000 m3 to over 650,000 m3. About half (46%) of the small reservoirs were found to be dry by May, just two months after the end of the wet season. Seven reservoirs, which represented 2% of the total number and 3% of the total capacity of reservoirs, were characterised as highly turbid. Twenty-three reservoirs, representing 9% of the total number and 3% of the total capacity of reservoirs, showed signs of environmental degradation in the catchments. The smallest reservoirs were found to be most vulnerable to environmental degradation. The study concluded that Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) can successfully be used to identify and characterise small reservoirs in the data-poor Limpopo basin in Zimbabwe, and can be used by decentralised water institutions and River Basin Organisations (RBOs) to better manage available water resources for the benefit of rural communities found therein

Introduction to the Special Issue – Flows and Practices: The Politics of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Southern Africa

For the past two decades, IWRM has been actively promoted by water experts as well as multilateral and bilateral donors who have considered it to be a crucial way to address global water management problems. IWRM has been incorporated into water laws, reforms and policies of southern African nations. This article introduces the special issue 'Flows and Practices: The Politics of IWRM in southern Africa'. It provides a conceptual framework to study: the flow of IWRM as an idea; its translation and articulation into new policies, institutions and allocation mechanisms, and the resulting practices and effects across multiple scales – global, regional, national and local. The empirical findings of the complexities of articulation and implementation of IWRM in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda form the core of this special issue. We demonstrate how Africa has been a laboratory for IWRM experiments, while donors as well as a new cadre of water professionals and students have made IWRM their mission. The case studies reveal that IWRM may have resulted in an unwarranted policy focus on managing water instead of enlarging poor women’s and men’s access to water. The newly created institutional arrangements tended to centralise the power and control of the State and powerful users over water and failed to address historically rooted inequalities.publishedVersio