Trends in land use and agricultural intensification in Kakamega, Western Kenya

The Kakamega District in Western Kenya is characterized by high population densities (600 people per km2) and shrinking of agricultural resource base. Agriculture is the mainstay of the majority of the population. Farmers in Kakamega adopt land, capital or labor-intensive strategies to meet the growing needs for food, income and employment. A quantitative understanding of land use trends, agricultural intensification and of their driving forces is required to target technology options and intervention measures. This thesis explores the trends in land use changes between 1986 and 2004, the main agricultural intensification strategies, as well as their driving forces and implications. Primary data were collected from some 243 households in the year 2005 by the use of a structured questionnaire. The households were selected out of the representative household clusters of the national census framework (Kenya National Sample Survey and Evaluation Program). Data analysis was based on the combined use of GIS techniques (digitized time series aerial photographs) and the use of standard household models of technology uptake (Tobit and Probit). Over 50% of the farmers live below the poverty line. The land use system in Kakamega is characterized as permanent cultivation. Yields of the main food crops like maize and beans are declining and the use of external inputs is low and largely limited to industrial crops (sugar cane and tea). Land fragmentation index is 0.6 with the average farm size of 0.9 ha per household. In order to raise the levels of agriculture production four main agricultural intensification strategies were used: 1) the expansion of the cropping area by cultivation of fallow land. The area under food crops increased from 48% to 53% and that under sugarcane from 22% to 42% between the year 1986 and 2004. During the same period, the fallow land decreased from 18% to 7% of the arable area. No further expansion of cultivation into fallow areas is possible today. 2) An increased use of external inputs was the strategy of choice to sustain production levels during the periods when mineral fertilizer was subsidized prior to mid 1980s. However, this strategy is capital-intensive and today it is restricted to the few large farms or to those growing industrial crops. 3) An increased cropping intensity by intercropping and multiple cropping can be observed since the mid 1990s. This strategy has also reached its limits as today most farmers practice maize - bean intercropping and the Ruthenberg value of land use intensity is approaching one. 4) An increased use of labor, mainly for land preparation, weeding operations and harvesting. However, family labor investment already reaches a maximum of 40 man-days per ha during high peak labor requirement and a further intensification in labor use is restricted to farmers that are able to hire labor. The agricultural intensification strategies differ between households and depend on the socio-economic characteristic of the farmer, market factors and the biophysical conditions. The remaining agricultural intensification strategies to improve productivity are linked to efficient use of external inputs. Potential technological options to improve productivity or to counteract the resource base degradation are available but require some modification to fit the prevailing biophysical conditions, as well as to the socio-economic attributes of the household. The targeting of such technical options to specific niches is seen to be the priority of future research and extension efforts in Kakamega.Veränderungen in der Landnutzung und der Intensivierung der Landwirtschaft in Kakamega, West-Kenia Die Kakamega Region im westlichen Kenia ist durch eine hohe Populationsdichte (600 Einwohner km2) bei gleichzeitig abnehmender Verfügbarkeit und Qualität der landwirtschaftlichen Ressourcen gekennzeichnet. Landwirtschaftliche Produktion ist die Haupteinnahmequelle der Mehrheit der lokalen Bevölkerung. Um den kontinuierlich wachsenden Ansprüchen an Nahrung, Feuerholz und Einkommen gerecht zu werden, reagieren die Landwirte mit einer Anbauintensivierung, die die Kultivierung von Bracheflächen, den Zwischenfruchanbau, den zunehmenden Einsatz von Produktionsmitteln wie Kapital (Düngemittel, Mechanisierung) oder Arbeitskraft (organische Düngung, Unkrautkontrolle) beinhalten. Das quantitative Verständnis der Veränderung der Landnutzung und deren Regelgrößen ist zwingend erforderlich, um neue Technologien und Interventionsmaßnahmen etablieren und gezielt einsetzen zu können. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde zunächst die zeitliche Veränderung der Landnutzung zwischen 1986 und 2004 untersucht. Dabei standen sowohl die Strategien zur Intensivierung der Landnutzung als auch deren Steuerungsmechanismen und resultierende Konsequenzen im Vordergrund. Ferner wurden sozialökonomische Kenngrößen von 243 Haushalten auf der Basis strukturierter Fragebögen und individueller Interviews erhoben. Die Auswahl der Haushalte erfolgte anhand der Datenbank des nationalen Volkszählungsprogramms (Kenya National Sample Survey and Evaluation Program). Schließlich wurde zur Datenanalyse eine Kombination von GIS-Technologien (Zeitreihen digitalisierter Luftbildaufnahmen) in Verbindung mit standardisierten Haushaltsmodellen zur Adaptation neuer Technologien (Tobit und Probit Analysen) herangezogen. Über 50% der Landwirte leben unterhalb der Armutsgrenze. Dauerbewirtschaftung mit zwei Ernten pro Jahr (Mais-Bohnen Mischanbau) sowie dem Anbau von Dauerkulturen (Zuckerrohr und Tee) ist die vorherrschende Landnutzungsform. Die Erträge der Hauptanbaukulturen sind in den letzten Jahren stark zurückgegangen. Der Einsatz von externen Produktionsmitteln liegt weit unterhalb der notwendigen Minimalgrenzen und beschränkt sich auf die Dauerkulturen mit industrieller Nutzung (Zuckerrohr und Tee). Der Landfragmentierungsindex beträgt 0.6 bei einer durchschnittlichen Betriebsgröße von 0.9 ha pro Haushalt. Um den landwirtschaftlichen Produktionsausstoß zu erhöhen wurden im Wesentlichen vier Strategien der Intensivierung verfolgt: 1) Ausweitung der Produktionsflächen. Von 1986 bis 2004 erhöhte sich die Produktionsfläche für Grundnahrungsmittel von 48% auf 53% und die von Zuckerrohr von 22% auf 42% der Gesamtanbaufläche. Gleichzeitig reduzierte sich der Anteil der Kulturbrache von 18% auf 7%. Ein weiteres Ausweichen der Produktion auf Extrem- oder Brachestandorte ist heutzutage nicht mehr möglich. 2) Mineraldüngereinsatz. Zur Erhaltung des aktuellen Produktionsniveaus wurde über die Subventionierung mineralischer Dünger in den 80er Jahren eine Steigerung des Einsatz externer Produktionsfaktoren erreicht. Die Strategie ist jedoch Kapitalintensiv und beschränkt sich heute auf einige wenige Großarmen und auf marktorientierte Betriebseinheiten mit Industriekulturen. 3) Anbauintensivierung. Seit Mitte der 90er Jahre ist eine Intensivierung der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion über Mehrfachanbau- und Zwischenfruchtanbauverfahren zu beobachten. Auch diese Strategien haben derzeitig ihre Grenzen erreicht, zumal seit 2005 die Mehrheit der Landwirte bereits xii zweimal jährlich Mais-Bohnen anbaut und sich der Ruthenberg Index zur Beschreibung der Landnutzungsintensität dem Wert 1 annähert. 4) Arbeitskräfteeinsatz. Ein erhöhter und ertragswirksamer Einsatz von Arbeitskräften erfolgt hauptsächlich für die Bodenbearbeitung und die Unkrautkontrolle. Jedoch erreicht der Einsatz von Familienarbeitskräften zu den Spitzenbedarfszeiten schon jetzt 40 Mann-Tagen pro Hektar und Woche und eine weitere Intensivierung beschränkt sich folglich auf Betriebe mit der Möglichkeit externe Arbeitskräfte zu rekrutieren. Die vorherschenden Strategien zur landwirtschaftlichen Intensivierung variieren zwischen den einzelnen Haushalten in Abhängigkeit von den sozio-ökonomischen Betriebskenngrößen, dem Marktzugang sowie von biophysikalischen Faktoren. Die einzige heute noch verbleibenden Strategie zum Erhalt bzw. der Steigerung der Produktion sind technische Innovationen, welche bei gleichzeitigem Erhalt der Ressourcenqualität auch die Effizienz der eingesetzten Betriebsmittel erhöhen. Solche technischen Einsatzmöglichkeiten stehen zwar prinzipiell zur Verfügung, sie müssen aber an die vorherrschenden biophysikalischen Begebenheiten und sozio-ökonomischen Eigenschaften der Haushalte angepasst sein. Die Identifikation und Bewertung dieser technischen Innovationen und deren Extrapolation in spezifische sozial-ökologische Nischen wird von essentieller Bedeutung für eine nachhaltige Erzeugung und den Erhalt der Lebensgrundlage der ländlichen Haushalte in Kakamega sein

Agricultural Growth, Poverty Reduction and Millennium Development Goals in Africa: Outcomes of AAAE Conference

This report is a summary of emerging issues affecting African agriculture, recent experiences and policy proposals that can guide interventions in improving the sector’s productivity. Agriculture is at the centre of rural poverty reduction in Africa and urgent measures are needed to increase farm yields and incomes in order to stem collapse of economies and societies.AAAE, African Association of Agricultural Economists, millennium development goals in Africa, agricultural policies, agricultural research systems, poverty reduction, agricultural productivity, Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Farm Management, Food Security and Poverty, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Q010, Q130, Q170, Q180, Q560,

Decentralization and Access to Agricultural Extension Services in Kenya

The form and content of decentralization has dominated development discourse and public sector reform agenda in Kenya in the last two decades. The case of agricultural extension service presents decentralization in a difficult context partly due to lack of information on its possible diverse impacts especially on resource poor farmers. This paper explores the effect of decentralization of agricultural extension on access, accountability and empowerment, and efficiency of delivering services to farmers. Secondary data, participatory research methods and primary data from a random sample of 250 farmers were used. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, multivariate analysis and logistic regression. The results show that there is improved access to extension services with increasing level of decentralization. Farmers from areas with higher decentralized extension also showed enhanced level of awareness of different channels for delivery of extension services. This improved knowledge, being an important component of empowerment of the farming community, resulted from the increase of service providers, who displayed synergy in their multiple methods of operation. Public delivery channels were the most affordable and were also ranked first for quality. Income, literacy levels, distance from towns and access to telephone significantly influenced access to extension services. Gender of the household-head was a key determinant for seeking out extension services in areas with high concentration of agricultural activities. For a pluralistic system to work there is need for better co-ordination between the various groups. Although there is evidence of partnership and synergy between service providers, there appeared to be little effective co-ordination of the groups involved. The government and other stakeholders should work towards developing a strong institutional framework that will guide and enhance this mutually beneficial partnership.extension services, decentralization, partnerships, policy reform, Kenya, Teaching/Communication/Extension/Profession,

The association of agricultural information services and technical efficiency among maize producers in Kakamega, western Kenya

Maize is the staple food for most Kenyan households, and grown in almost all the farming systems. Due to diminishing farm sizes in Kakamega District, crop productivity and the efficiency of farming systems are of great concern. This paper aims to provide empirical evidence on the links between efficiency in maize production and access to soil-related agricultural information services. Using cluster sampling, a total of 154 farmers in Kakamega District were interviewed. A 2–step estimation technique (Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and Tobit model) were used to evaluate the technical efficiencies among the farmers and the factors explaining the estimated efficiency scores. Data was disaggregated into farmers with and those without access to soil-related agricultural information services. The results shows that farmers with access to soil-related agricultural information services were more technically efficient (average technical efficiency of 90%) in maize production compared to those without access to information (technical efficiency at 70%). Given the significant role that access to soil-related agricultural information services play on technical efficiency in maize production in the study area, the paper recommends improvements in farmers access to this important resources through: (i) the strengthening of the formal and informal agricultural extension services, (ii) a stronger linkage among agricultural research, agricultural extension, and farm level activities; and (iii) policy support for increased distribution of soil management inputs.Maize, Soil information, Technical efficiency, Tobit analysis, DEA, Teaching/Communication/Extension/Profession,

Effects of Plant Clinics on Pesticides Usage by Farming Households in Kenya

Plant clinics focus primarily on diagnosis and dissemination of advice on management/control of plant health problems. The advice provided includes cultural, chemical (pesticides) and biological control or any combination of the listed control methods. Use of pesticides is preferred by farmers for the control of crop pests and diseases because of its quick knock down effect although it is also associated with high costs as well as  negative environmental and human health effects. This study examined how plant clinics influence the use of pesticides by maize and tomato farmers in Bungoma, West Pokot, Kirinyaga, Embu and Kiambu Counties in Kenya in the 2016/2017 production year. The objectives of the study were to: (i) examine sources of pesticides (ii) assess factors that determine pesticide usage and (iii) establish changes in pesticide usage practices by farmers. Three hundred and forty three farmers, who included 172 plant clinic users and 171 non-plant clinic users, were selected for the study. The selection process took cognizance of gender issues and selection of non-users in areas where there were no plant clinics in the study counties but with similar agro-ecological conditions and farming systems involving maize and tomato production. Data were collected on socioeconomic variables, pesticide use, costs of production, crop output, per unit price of output and attendance of plant clinics. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, multiple linear and logistic regression models. The study established that farmer knowledge of pesticides improved following the use of plant clinics. Farmer access to information on pesticides improved with regard to sources of pesticides and the types of pesticides to use. There was also an increase in safe use of pesticides. For both men and women there was a positive and statistically significant relationship between wearing of protective clothing and visit to the plant clinic (p<0.05). Plant clinic users had access to more options for pest and disease management. Sixty three percent (63%) of male headed households compared to 70% female headed households used personal protective equipment (PPEs) while spraying before visiting plant clinics. After visiting plant clinics the proportion of male headed households wearing PPEs increased to 75%, while the female headed households increased to 82%. Additionally, awareness of pre-harvest interval increased from 15% to 29% for plant clinic users. There was an increase in knowledge of re-entry interval from 33% to 74% as a result of plant clinic visits. There was also an increase in efficiency of pesticide usage and access to information on management of pests. This suggests the need for improving farmer access to plant clinics for necessary information coupled with advice on pest and disease management practices. Keywords: pesticides, plant clinics, awareness, safe use, gender, pests, Keny

The association of agricultural information services and technical efficiency among maize producers in Kakamega, western Kenya

Maize is the staple food for most Kenyan households, and grown in almost all the farming systems. Due to diminishing farm sizes in Kakamega District, crop productivity and the efficiency of farming systems are of great concern. This paper aims to provide empirical evidence on the links between efficiency in maize production and access to soil-related agricultural information services. Using cluster sampling, a total of 154 farmers in Kakamega District were interviewed. A 2–step estimation technique (Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and Tobit model) were used to evaluate the technical efficiencies among the farmers and the factors explaining the estimated efficiency scores. Data was disaggregated into farmers with and those without access to soil-related agricultural information services. The results shows that farmers with access to soil-related agricultural information services were more technically efficient (average technical efficiency of 90%) in maize production compared to those without access to information (technical efficiency at 70%). Given the significant role that access to soil-related agricultural information services play on technical efficiency in maize production in the study area, the paper recommends improvements in farmers access to this important resources through: (i) the strengthening of the formal and informal agricultural extension services, (ii) a stronger linkage among agricultural research, agricultural extension, and farm level activities; and (iii) policy support for increased distribution of soil management inputs

Decentralization and Access to Agricultural Extension Services in Kenya

The form and content of decentralization has dominated development discourse and public sector reform agenda in Kenya in the last two decades. The case of agricultural extension service presents decentralization in a difficult context partly due to lack of information on its possible diverse impacts especially on resource poor farmers. This paper explores the effect of decentralization of agricultural extension on access, accountability and empowerment, and efficiency of delivering services to farmers. Secondary data, participatory research methods and primary data from a random sample of 250 farmers were used. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, multivariate analysis and logistic regression. The results show that there is improved access to extension services with increasing level of decentralization. Farmers from areas with higher decentralized extension also showed enhanced level of awareness of different channels for delivery of extension services. This improved knowledge, being an important component of empowerment of the farming community, resulted from the increase of service providers, who displayed synergy in their multiple methods of operation. Public delivery channels were the most affordable and were also ranked first for quality. Income, literacy levels, distance from towns and access to telephone significantly influenced access to extension services. Gender of the household-head was a key determinant for seeking out extension services in areas with high concentration of agricultural activities. For a pluralistic system to work there is need for better co-ordination between the various groups. Although there is evidence of partnership and synergy between service providers, there appeared to be little effective co-ordination of the groups involved. The government and other stakeholders should work towards developing a strong institutional framework that will guide and enhance this mutually beneficial partnership

Agricultural Growth, Poverty Reduction and Millennium Development Goals in Africa: Outcomes of AAAE Conference

This booklet covers the outcomes of the AAAE conference, held on 18-22 August, 2007 at La Palm Beach Hotel, Accra, Ghana. The main theme of the conference was Agricultural growth, poverty reduction and millennium development goals in Africa. The conference presentations were based on six sub themes mainly: (1) Improved Markets for African Farmers for Poverty Reduction (2) Advancing Technical change in Africa Agriculture (3) The role of Agriculture in Poverty Reduction: Recent experiences from Africa (4) Expanding the Frontiers of Agricultural Economics to Meet the challenges of Agricultural Development in Achieving the Millennium Development Goals (5) Meeting Africa’s Food and Nutrition Challenges (6) Agriculture, Environment and sustainable Development Some of the emerging issues affecting agriculture in Africa include: lack of markets, globalization and market liberalization, biotechnology as a technical option to improve yields, poor infrastructure, lack of information, and new institutional economics (NIE) as a tool to solve development problems, HIV/AIDS prevalence and sustainable agriculture. African countries are challenged by the emergence of globalization. African economies need to change their agricultural and industrial exports from primary products to manufactured goods. Such value addition will improve their participation in international trade, and enhance reduction of poverty. Africa needs to resolve challenges related to food and nutrition that affect many rural smallholder farmers who are poor. Various initiatives have been established to solve some of the challenges facing Africa. Recent improvements in agricultural productivity occurred due to a paradigm shift in development schools of thought from agriculture as a passive contributor to economic growth to agriculture as a possible engine of growth. This was enhanced by recent reforms to remove urban bias stemming from macroeconomic and tax policies. Emergences of new institutional arrangement have enabled the smallholders to maintain their participation in high value European markets. Public-private partnerships have played a key role in helping smallholder farmers acquire training on certification against European food safety standards, while collective action and marketing has led to higher incomes among the small holder farmers. The introduction of NERICA rice variety has shown a huge potential in improved yields and production of rice in Africa. New Institutional Economics (NIE) could provide theoretical framework to understand markets, system and also answer the ‘how’ question of agricultural policy. As the need for the NIE becomes clearer, it emerged that agricultural economists across the continent are still being trained in the standard neo-classical economic framework and liberal market ideology. It was recommended that in order to realize a Green Revolution, Africa need to invest more in research and development of drought-tolerant yield-enhancing technologies. Effective soil management practices based on crop-livestock-feed-agro-forestry interactions or the use of chemical fertilizers are needed. Yields could be increased by application of more inputs per ha with specific focus on fertilizer, and also develop fertilizer-responsive varieties, that are able to convert nutrients to grains or fruits efficiently especially in areas where rainfall is low and unpredictable. Policy agenda in Africa should bring hunger to the forefront of poverty reduction in the context of long-term food security and development. This could be enhanced by developing flexible support for the resilience of food and agricultural systems in crisis situations while enacting anti-hunger policy in the context of the macro-economic environment. Governments should protect vulnerable citizens from hunger by developing social protection strategies, improved diet quality, control of chronic diseases and better crises prevention and management