Animal health in organic livestock systems: a review

Organic livestock production is a means of food production with a large number of rules directed towards a high status of animal welfare, care for the environment, restricted use of medical drugs and the production of a healthy product without residues (pesticides or medical drugs). The intentions of organic livestock production have been formulated by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and were further implemented by EU regulation 2092/91 in the year 2000. The consequences of these rules for the health of the animals were not yet fully anticipated at the time these regulations were made and it has become clear that in some cases the rules are not clear enough thereby even hampering the development of the production system. In this review we shall discuss the implications of these rules for animal health, whereby we shall focus on pig, poultry and dairy production systems. Disease prevention in organic farming is based on the principles that an animal that is allowed to exhibit natural behaviour, is not subjected to stress, and is fed optimal (organic) feed, will have a higher ability to cope with infections than animals reared in a conventional way. Fewer medical treatments would thus be necessary and if an animal would become diseased, alternative treatments instead of conventional drugs should be preferred. Although homeopathy or phytotherapy are recommended according to prevailing regulations, not many organic farmers use this treatment regimen in view of lacking scientific evidence of effectiveness. Important health problems in organic livestock farming are often related to the animals’ outdoor access area. Due to such an area the animals are exposed to various viral, bacterial and parasitic infections some of which may influence the animals’ own welfare but other ones may also endanger the health of conventional livestock (e.g. Avian Influenza) or pose a food safety (Campylobacter, Toxoplasma) problem to the consumer. Many preventive measures can be taken such as using better animal breeds, optimised rearing conditions, pre-, probiotics, addition of acids to the drinking water and in case of infectious disease, tight vaccination schedules may prevent serious outbreaks

Visie gezondheid en welzijn biologische landbouwhuisdieren

Veehouders is gevraagd naar hun mening over toekomstige ontwikkelingen in diergezondheid en dierwelzijn in de biologische veehouderij. In dit rapport is naast algemene ontwikkelingen, per diersoort op basis van stellingen aangegeven hoe veehouders denken in de toekomst om te gaan met gezondheid en welzijn. Zowel tussen diergroepen als binnen diergroepen kunnen meningen van veehouders soms sterk uiteenlopen. Meer nadruk op preventie, gebruik maken van de zelfredzaamheid van dieren, geen nodeloos lijden, meer onderzoek naar alternatieve behandelingen, eenvoudiger registratie van geneesmiddelen, geen regelgeving die welzijn in de weg staat en goede onafhankelijke adviseurs past in de visie voor alle diersoorten

Analysis of black holes in our knowledge concerning animal health in the organic food production chain

Although a large body of research on health aspects can be found via the web or in conference proceedings, only few papers reach the peer reviewed literature. This aspect makes it difficult to judge the quality of available data that relate to health aspects associated with organic livestock production. Many data deal with "on farm case type studies" which often do not lead to a direct relation between certain management procedures and incidence of certain health aspects. The principle that organic held animals are in better condition concerning their health as compared to conventionally held animals has not yet been proven. Well-controlled studies are needed to show the effects of organically held animals on innate and adaptive immune responses and disease susceptibility. The conditions in organic livestock production lead to novel challenges concerning social interactions, physical requirements, climatic conditions and infectious burden which requires certain breeds of animals that differ considerably from the conventionally held animals. More research is needed to identify these breeds whereby breeding selection criteria specific to organic conditions and principles should be used. A number of health problems such as infestation with parasites is an important problem that has been noted in organic livestock (poultry and pig) production and more research is needed to both prevent and treat these infections. Although largely recommended, phytotherapy and homeopathy do not have any demonstrated efficacy in managing helminths. A multidisciplinary approach is needed to address these questions. Investigations should be concerned with aspects such as rotation, stocking density, disinfections strategies, genetic predisposition and novel (plant derived or biological) antihelminthics. A major drawback in the use of phytotherapeuticals is the lack of good clinical trials, most claims are based on traditional use, anecdotal evidence or extrapolation of human data. Another problem is the consistency/standardisation of the product; variations exist in the levels of "active" ingredients between lots. Extensive studies have shown that garlic has a beneficial effect on human health and therefore would possibly be a suitable candidate to increase the health of animals in organic production. Further research is needed to substantiate this claim. Although mastitis is not seen more often in organic dairy production compared to conventional farms, it is still frequently encountered and both basic and applied research concerning prevention and cure without the traditional use of antibiotics is needed. More knowledge is needed concerning effects of alternative treatments in organic livestock production. As long as alternative treatments have not formally been proven to be effective, allopathic treatments should be preferred. Studies are needed concerning the welfare aspects of disease and insufficient or postponed treatment in organic animal production systems. It is generally accepted that feather picking and cannibalism is a major problem in organic poultry and more research is needed to counter this unwanted behaviour of the animals. The following aspects including genetic influences, housing environment, feed composition and the presence of external parasites may be involved. Vaccination has been one of the largest success factors in the prevention of disease in production animals. Most vaccines used nowadays are genetically engineered and should thus carry the GMO label. GMO based vaccines produced by incorporating genetic material from bacteria or viruses into plants is an attractive approach but does not comply with the principles of organic farming. Investigations concerning various vaccination strategies with or without GMO approaches should be evaluated to prevent various infectious diseases in organic livestock production systems. Organic livestock production leads to an increase or re-emergence of certain zoonotic diseases ( Campylobacter, toxoplasma). This is a serious drawback concerning claims that organic products are healthier as compared to conventional products and research into the prevalence of certain zoonotic infections, risk factors, farm management, post slaughter decontamination and consumer perception/education is badly needed. Several micro-organisms are described to be present in feeds and could be sources of infections of farm animals. Such pathogens can be either present on the outside of the plant (epiphytes) or on the inside of the plant (endophytes). The incidence of pathogenic bacteria in/on plants used for organic animal feed is not clear and therefore research on the incidence of these pathogens is needed. Biological cycles such as the utilisation of manure from organic farms may potentially lead to the creation of infectious reservoirs. Research is needed to provide evidence for this hypothesis and strategies should be devised to prevent this problem. Little is known about the role of pests in the occurrence of disease in organic livestock production. Research is needed into the efficacy of alternative pest control strategies since current pest control methods are not in agreement with organic production principles (use of anticoagulants for rodent control). The obligatory use of straw bedding in swine household management leads to higher dust and bioareosol (endotoxin) levels in stables. This may affect susceptibility to lung disease (farmer and animal) and investigations concerning measures to reduce dust and bioaerosol levels are needed. Current literature on this subject is not concordant and true differences may exist between management systems from different countries. Piglet mortality is an important problem in organic production systems and research concerning genetic and housing aspects is currently performed but not yet reported in the peer-reviewed literature. Amino acid imbalance and research into novel feed sources with high protein content is needed. More knowledge is known concerning possible anti-nutritive factors in these feeds and the effects of these new nutrients on gut health of the animals. Amino acid imbalance may lead to higher excretion of excess amino acids into the environment. On farm research should be performed to substantiate whether these claims also apply to organic production systems. It has been suggested that organic feeds for animals in organic production systems may contain higher mycotoxin levels thereby adversely affecting their health status. As yet no conclusive data concerning this issue has been published and research into this area is needed to prove or reject this myth. As yet it is not known whether phytase levels in organic feed for pigs are sufficient to allow optimal utilisation of organic phosphor thereby also leading to a lower environmental pollution; further investigations are needed in this area

Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Animal-Friendly Pig Production Systems

PURPOSE. Consumption of undercooked pork meat products has been considered a major risk factor for contracting toxoplasmosis in humans. Indoor farming and improved hygiene have drastically reduced Toxoplasma infections in pigs over the past decades. Whether introduction of animal-friendly production systems will lead to a reemergence of Toxoplasma infections in pigs is not yet known. Investigating this possibility was the purpose of this study. METHODS. Blood was obtained from pigs raised for slaughter and tested for Toxoplasma antibodies by using latex agglutination and indirect immunofluorescence testing, with confirmation by immunoblotting. RESULTS. None of the slaughter pigs (n = 621) from conventional farms (n = 30) were positive, whereas 38 (2.9%) of 1295 animals from animal-friendly systems tested positive (n = 33 farms; 13 [39%] farms positive). CONCLUSIONS. The following conclusions may be derived from this study: Conventionally (indoors) raised pigs are free from Toxoplasma infection, and (2) animal-friendly production systems may lead to a reemergence of Toxoplasma infections, although many of these farms remain Toxoplasma free. Slaughterhouse monitoring of pigs from animal-friendly production systems combined with on-farm prevention strategies should be applied to ensure safety for consumers of the meat products obtained from these animals

KSF3 Veal Calves: results of a field trial

Summary UK Commissioned by the Dutch veal calf sector (SBK) and the ministry of LNV, phase 3 of the study to critical success factors for low antibiotic use in veal calves (KSF Veal Calves) involved a pilot study where five “triangles” of farmer-veterinarian-other advisor of which the veal farm had a high antibiotic use, were coached by an external coach. The aim of the pilot study was to investigate if farmers with high antibiotic use could realize behavioural changes through collaboration of the triangle farmer-veterinarian-advisor, in combination with external coaching and tailor-made interventions which could contribute to the improvement of animal health and thus may result in a reduction in antibiotic use and more prudent use

KSF3 Vleeskalveren: resultaten van een praktijkpilot

Summary UK Commissioned by the Dutch veal calf sector (SBK) and the ministry of LNV, phase 3 of the study to critical success factors for low antibiotic use in veal calves (KSF Veal Calves) involved a pilot study where five “triangles” of farmer-veterinarian-other advisor of which the veal farm had a high antibiotic use, were coached by an external coach. The aim of the pilot study was to investigate if farmers with high antibiotic use could realize behavioural changes through collaboration of the triangle farmer-veterinarian-advisor, in combination with external coaching and tailor-made interventions which could contribute to the improvement of animal health and thus may result in a reduction in antibiotic use and more prudent use

Effect of structural animal health planning on antimicrobial use and animal health variables in conventional dairy farming in the Netherlands

Widespread veterinary use of antimicrobials might contribute to the increasing burden of antimicrobial resistance. Despite many successful efforts to reduce veterinary antimicrobial use in the Netherlands, antimicrobial use on a substantial number of farms has remained relatively high over the past few years. Farm-specific solutions are required to further lower antimicrobial use on these farms. Reducing the burden of animal diseases at the farm level by means of a structured approach to animal health planning could be promising. This intervention study aimed to evaluate the main effects of an animal health planning program developed by an advisory team consisting of a dairy farmer, his veterinarian, and his feed adviser under the guidance of a professional facilitator. During an initial farm visit, the advisory team developed a farm-specific animal health planning program with support from the facilitator. After 1 yr, the effects of this program on animal health, production parameters, and antimicrobial use were evaluated and compared with control farms that did not have a facilitated animal health planning program. Antimicrobial use on intervention farms was significantly reduced between the start and the end of the study period; however, no significant differences in the rate of reduction between the intervention and control groups could be observed (−19% and −14%, respectively). Reduced antimicrobial use did not result in negative effects on animal health and production parameters during the study period in both groups. On intervention farms, a significant positive relationship was found between the percentage of completed action points at farm level and the percentage reduction in antimicrobial use. The level of compliance with action points and the quality of collaboration between farmer and advisers were positively associated with the accomplishment of corresponding objectives. However, the total number of objectives was negatively associated with the level of compliance with action points and tended to be negatively associated with the percentage reduction in antimicrobial use at farm level. Gradually reducing antimicrobial use without adverse effects on animal health and productivity is possible by adjusting management practices in a team effort. Fostering good collaboration among farmer, veterinarian, and feed adviser and focusing on a limited number of objectives have positive effects on the outcomes of the animal health planning program and antimicrobial use

Unravelling the construction of silver filigree spheres from a seventeenth century shipwreck using non-invasive imaging

The structure of five rare filigree spheres from a seventeenth century shipwreck was examined in order to unravel their condition, manufacturing process and function. This study focuses on the application of non-invasive imaging techniques: optical microscopy, X-radiography, X-ray micro-computed tomography and neutron computed tomography. A valuation of different aspects of the applied techniques was made, aiding stakeholders in decision-making on research and conservation. The combination of theory and scientific information was used to obtain an improved understanding of the manufacturing process and function of the filigree spheres.Geo-engineeringRST/Neutron and Positron Methods in Material

A case study for scientific research prior to conservation of marine metal artefacts

A rare find of a high-status 17th century oval box, retrieved from a shipwreck, provided a unique opportunity to research the construction and finishing layers of an object that is untouched for 350 years. This case study was used to demonstrate the extent of data that can be gained from analytical techniques prior to conservation. The amalgam-gilt brass object was studied by optical and electron microscopy, X-radiography, micro-computed X-ray tomography, neutron tomography, X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, proton-induced X-ray emission and gas chromatography. The results have led to a characterisation of the manufacturing methods used on the box and to a better understanding of the practicality of modern analytical methods and techniques in (maritime) archaeological research.RST/Neutron and Positron Methods in Material

Change lost: Corrosion of Roman copper alloy coins in changing and variable burial environments

We studied the corrosion of Roman copper alloy coins that experienced alternations or progressive changes in their burial environment. We used coins that were still embedded in soil or in a concretion selected from three professional excataved sites - Berlicum and Krommenie in the Netherlands and Kempraten in Switserland. mCT scanning and neutron scanning were used to record the 3-D properties of these coins prior to (destructive) analyses. It proved possible to tentatively identify the coins. Microscope observations and SEM-EDX analyses revealed complex corrosion processes, related to changing burial environments. In soil horizon with fluctuating groundwater levels in a region with upwelling reducing, iron-rich groundwater, the copper in a gunmetal coin is essentially replaced by iron oxides while tin remains and forms tin-oxide bands. Fluctuating redox conditions in marine-influenced environments was shown to transform a copper-alloy coin into strongly laminated copper sulphides with embedded gypsum crystals, with an outer surface of copper and copper-iron sulphides. Burial of bronze in a charcoal rich layer probably caused temporary highly alkaline soil conditions. This caused most of the copper to leach from this coin, leaving behind a laminated tin-dominated mass, with only a limited amount of (malachite) corrosion products remaining in the surrounding groundmass. In all three cases, corrosion processes tend to be anisotropic, probably because of cold-hammering of the coins during their manufacture. Such corrosion processes on massive copper alloy coins may produce features that may lead to their incorrect classification as subferrati, i.e. copper alloy coins with an iron core. Our results may help in future to distinguish strongly corroded massive coins from subferrati