EVALUATING CHEMICAL DETERRENCE AT TWO SPATIAL SCALES: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CHEMICAL DETERRENCE FOR SANDHILL CRANES IN CORNFIELDS

From 2006 through 2008, 9,10 anthraquinone (sold as Avitec™) was used as a deterrent on planted corn seed in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. ICF conducted field trials in Wisconsin to determine efficacy of Avitec™ to repel sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) from germinating corn. We assessed crane use at 2 levels: between and within habitats by crane population surveys to determine crane use of fields, and corn density surveys to assess possible damage within fields. In addition, corn seed samples were taken to assess amount of active ingredient on treated corn seeds in the ground. In 2008 the concentrations of Avitec™ on seed obtained from powder treatments (as compared to liquid treated) were generally lower. Where concentration of Avitec™ on the corn seeds was adequate (liquid or powder), it successfully deterred crane herbivory even though crane use of the fields remained high. Non-treated fields had higher damage as crane use increased, whereas treated fields had low or no damage, even with increased crane use. An effective deterrent is a win-win situation for both cranes and farmers. Its use protects a valuable crop while allowing cranes to access critical food items in cultivated fields, which also confers a benefit to the farmer (i.e., consumption of crop pests). Farmers can solve the problem more economically on their own without handling toxic seed treatments. Successful solutions such as this example are critical for advancing wildlife conservation on private lands

TESTING THREE CHEMICALS FOR DETERRING CROP DAMAGE BY CRANES

Damage to planted corn seed by cranes has the potential to cause great economic loss in areas where both intersect. In 2000 the International Crane Foundation (ICF) tested limonene (LIM), methyl anthranilate (MA), and 9,10-anthraquinone (AQ) as possible replacements for the insecticides lindane and diazinon that had been used as deterrents to cranes damaging corn seed and seedlings. LIM, MA, and AQ lowered germination rates (down to 85, 90, and 92%, respectively) as compared to a germination rate of 96% in untreated corn. A 1.0% solution of AQ was effective as a crane deterrent, while LIM and MA were not. Both LIM and MA metabolized in the soil too quickly to be effective during the entire period when corn seedlings were vulnerable to crane herbivory. In 2001, a 0.5% concentration of AQ in 2 different soils (sand and organic) was tested in 2 different time periods (trial 1, 15 May to 14 June; trial 2, 26 June to 7 July 2). The concentration of AQ did not degrade to below effective levels in either soil type or in either time period. In all trials, AQ concentration of 0.5% prevented crane herbivory. Crane response to AQ-treated corn was to continue foraging in fields without damaging the planted crop. We believe AQ is an effective chemical deterrent and will prove useful for preventing crane damage to planted corn

Characterisation of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris) varieties using microsatellite markers

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Sugar beet is an obligate outcrossing species. Varieties consist of mixtures of plants from various parental combinations. As the number of informative morphological characteristics is limited, this leads to some problems in variety registration research.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We have developed 25 new microsatellite markers for sugar beet. A selection of 12 markers with high quality patterns was used to characterise 40 diploid and triploid varieties. For each variety 30 individual plants were genotyped. The markers amplified 3-21 different alleles. Varieties had up to 7 different alleles at one marker locus. All varieties could be distinguished. For the diploid varieties, the expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.458 to 0.744. The average inbreeding coefficient F_iswas 0.282 ± 0.124, but it varied widely among marker loci, from F_is= +0.876 (heterozygote deficiency) to F_is= -0.350 (excess of heterozygotes). The genetic differentiation among diploid varieties was relatively constant among markers (F_st= 0.232 ± 0.027). Among triploid varieties the genetic differentiation was much lower (F_st= 0.100 ± 0.010). The overall genetic differentiation between diploid and triploid varieties was F_st= 0.133 across all loci. Part of this differentiation may coincide with the differentiation among breeders' gene pools, which was F_st= 0.063.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Based on a combination of scores for individual plants all varieties can be distinguished using the 12 markers developed here. The markers may also be used for mapping and in molecular breeding. In addition, they may be employed in studying gene flow from crop to wild populations.</p

Religious transformations in the Middle Ages: towards a new archaeological agenda

The study of religious change in Europe between the collapse of the Roman Empire and the Reformation forms one of the cornerstones of medieval archaeology but has been riven by period, denominational and geographical divisions. This paper lays the groundwork for a fundamental rethink of archaeological approaches to medieval religions, by adopting a holistic framework that places Christian, pagan, Islamic and Jewish case studies of religious transformation in a long-term, comparative perspective. Focused around the analytical themes of ‘hybridity and resilience’ and ‘tempo and trajectories’, our approach shifts attention away from the singularities of national narratives of religious conversion towards a deeper understanding of how religious beliefs, practices and identity were renegotiated by medieval people in their daily lives

EFFECTIVE AND SUSTAINABLE PREVENTION OF AVIAN DAMAGE TO PLANTED SEEDS THROUGH SEED TREATMENT

Several species of cranes and other wildlife have recovered from low populations because, in part, they have adapted to resources found in agricultural environments. If future conservation strategies are to succeed in areas dominated by agricultural use, we must develop sustainable models that solve crop damage problems that are caused by expanding wildlife populations. Using crane damage to planted seed as an example, we propose 1 such model of sustainable crop damage prevention. The deterrent, 9,10-anthraquinone (AQ), is a natural product produced by plants, in part to control bird frugivory, and induces gastro-intestinal distress (temporarily sickens an individual) in sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) as well as other bird species. AQ is an effective deterrent because it induces a physiological response at first and is then accompanied by a conditioned avoidance. Yet, AQ is not toxic to birds nor are birds likely to habituate to the deterrent. Seed repellents cause birds to avoid treated foods among several possible items found within the same field. Other, more traditional, crop damage repellents (e.g., propane cannons) operate by moving birds among fields within home ranges. Excluding preferred habitats such as cornfields increases the risk that birds will habituate to deployed damage solutions. AQ products have adapted to a diverse farm environment and cost less than 3% of total planting costs. They were applied to prevent crane damage on planted corn for more than 67,000 ha in the Midwest during 2018 and can be deployed at whatever spatial scale that damage severity warrants. Our model using AQ as a seed treatment to prevent crane damage to germinating corn has been applied to pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and blackbirds (Icteridae) as well as in rice and sunflower crops. As such, this model presents a sustainable approach that arises from solutions that allow agriculture and wildlife to co-exist

INFLUENCE OF LANDSCAPE FEATURES OF WETLANDS ON NESTING PATTERNS OF SANDHILL CRANES IN CENTRAL WISCONSIN

We studied the relationship between landscape features and nesting patterns of greater sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis tabida) in central Wisconsin for 3 years. Our study covered 9,840 ha, including about 50% agricultural fields, 20% forest, and 20% wetlands. We analyzed landscape features and nesting patterns at the wetland complex level. Landscape features included size, shape, and type of cover for each wetland complex. Nesting patterns included nesting density and the spatial pattern of the nest locations in a wetland among years. Nest density varied among wetland complexes and years. Mean nest densities in wetlands surveyed were 0.037, 0.033, and 0.047 nests/ha in 2001, 2002, and 2003, respectively. Nest density in individual wetlands varied from year to year, from 0.00 to 11.24 nests/ha. Mid-sized wetlands (80-120 ha) had similar means, around 0.05 nests/ha, and had smaller variations in nest density among years in comparison with small wetlands. Spatial point pattern analysis showed that the spatial pattern of nest locations in the wetlands was not always clustered. Mean distance between the two closest nests within single wetlands within a year was 227 m (11-666 m, SD = 163 m). The distance was usually around 120 m for a mid-sized wetland

Revisiting the Historic Distribution and Habitats of the Whooping Crane

Understanding the historic range and habitats of an endangered species can assist in conservation and reintroduction efforts for that species. Individuals reintroduced into a species’ historic core range have a higher survival rate compared to individuals introduced near the periphery or outside the historic range (Falk and Olwell, 1992; Griffith et al., 1989). Individuals on the periphery of a species’ range tend to occupy less favorable habitats and have lower and more variable densities than those near the core of their range (Brown, 1984; Brown et al., 1995, 1996). Such conclusions, however, presume that historic habitats have not changed since a species was extirpated from core areas – a difficult assumption for many areas, and particularly for wetland habitat (Prince, 1997). Many endangered species persist only on the periphery of their historic range because of habitat loss or modification in their core range (Channell and Lomolino, 2000), which can bias our understanding of the species’ habitat preferences. Further, habitat models based on locations where species persist necessarily emphasize local conditions rather than historical conditions (Kuemmerle et al., 2011). For example, habitat models for the European bison (Bison bonasus) suggested it was a woodland species, but assessment of the bison’s historic range indicated it preferred mosaictype landscapes and had a more eastern and northern distribution than previously reported (Kuemmerle et al., 2011, 2012). Hence, accurate determination of the historic range and habitat conditions for endangered species can improve our understanding of their ecology and assist in conservation and reintroduction efforts. Examining the historic range from an ecological perspective can also help identify where appropriate habitat still exists that could sustain a population

TESTING THREE CHEMICALS FOR DETERRING CROP DAMAGE BY CRANES

Damage to planted corn seed by cranes has the potential to cause great economic loss in areas where both intersect. In 2000 the International Crane Foundation (ICF) tested limonene (LIM), methyl anthranilate (MA), and 9,10-anthraquinone (AQ) as possible replacements for the insecticides lindane and diazinon that had been used as deterrents to cranes damaging corn seed and seedlings. LIM, MA, and AQ lowered germination rates (down to 85, 90, and 92%, respectively) as compared to a germination rate of 96% in untreated corn. A 1.0% solution of AQ was effective as a crane deterrent, while LIM and MA were not. Both LIM and MA metabolized in the soil too quickly to be effective during the entire period when corn seedlings were vulnerable to crane herbivory. In 2001, a 0.5% concentration of AQ in 2 different soils (sand and organic) was tested in 2 different time periods (trial 1, 15 May to 14 June; trial 2, 26 June to 7 July 2). The concentration of AQ did not degrade to below effective levels in either soil type or in either time period. In all trials, AQ concentration of 0.5% prevented crane herbivory. Crane response to AQ-treated corn was to continue foraging in fields without damaging the planted crop. We believe AQ is an effective chemical deterrent and will prove useful for preventing crane damage to planted corn

SANDHILL CRANE FORAGING BEHAVIOR AND DAMAGE ESTIMATES IN CORNFIELDS DURING SPRING

Damage to corn in the spring caused by greater sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis tabida) has increased concurrent with growth of the Eastern Population of cranes. Our study was designed to: 1) describe foraging rates and food acquisition behavior where damage was likely and 2) estimate damage in cornfields treated and untreated with a taste deterrent: 9,10-anthraquinone (AQ; Avipel®). Our 6,251.6-ha study area was located near Briggsville, Wisconsin, and we sampled 415 ± 13.2 individuals/ survey (x ± SE), of which 36 ± 1.7% used cornfields. During 10-30 May 2009, 121 observation bouts of 33 marked cranes that foraged in 20 cornfields were collected. Observation bouts averaged 21 ± 1.32 minutes of which 10.2 ± 0.75 minutes consisted of active foraging by cranes. Individuals swallowed an average of 6.08 ± 0.68 items/active minute. Only 10.4% of 6,445 items consumed were identified and 9.7% of items were corn kernels (93% of identified items). Ingestion rates for all foods in fields treated with AQ (6.44 items/min) and non-treated fields (6.21 items/min) did not differ (t = −0.15, P = 0.88), but corn kernels consumed in non-treated fields were ingested at more than 3 times the rate measured from treated fields (F = 3.84, P = 0.05). Jab/probe ratios did not differ between treated and untreated fields (F = 0.12, P = 0.72), so foraging behaviors were similar even though different foods were consumed. We estimated that all sandhill cranes in this study area consumed 71,245 kernels/ day (478 kernels/crane/day) and, over the period that planted corn was potentially vulnerable, consumed a maximum of \u3e2.9 million kernels or 41.0 ha of planted corn (3.8% of all corn planted in the study area). Crane damage could be widely scattered, and thus insignificant, or it could be locally severe as non-territorial individuals congregate in 1 field and concentrate damage, making the distribution of severe damage unpredictable. Though effective at alleviating crane damage, treating planted corn must either be applied uniformly or applied based on previous experience with crane foraging patterns and planting phenology in relationship to other fields

HIGH NEST DENSITY OF SANDHILL CRANES IN CENTRAL WISCONSIN

We conducted aerial surveys to determine nest locations of greater sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis tabida) in central Wisconsin, 2001-2003. Helicopter flights covered 8.90 km2 of wetlands in each year, and we found 41 nests in 2001, 50 nests in 2002, and 48 nests in 2003 from 11 wetlands. Our best estimate of nest density (n = 14) included wetlands containing 5 or more nests and averaged 5.25 ± 0.36 (1 SE) nests/km2 of wetland. Maximum nest density of larger wetlands in any 1 year was 7.80 nests/km2. As some nests had likely failed by the time we completed our surveys, our measure of nest density likely under-estimated the total number of territories in each wetland. Minimum distances between nests averaged 222 ± 70 m (range 33-666 m) among all wetlands and 151 ± 41 m (range 33-571 m) for wetlands with 5 or more nests. Nest locations differed from a random distribution (P \u3c 0.05) and were clustered within wetlands and within years. Nest locations were found more than expected in the wetland habitat type (Jacob’s Index D = 0.72 in 2001, 0.66 in 2002 and 0.76 in 2003) and less than expected in open water, open shrub, and closed shrub. No nests were found in wetland forests. Crane nests also tended to occur on the outside margins of the wetlands. Nest density in central Wisconsin was greater than any previous estimate for any other crane population yet recorded and likely represents a breeding population at carrying capacity as well as a species that utilizes both upland and wetland habitats together