The Meaning and Malleableness of Liberty from 1897-1945

This paper covers how the substance and meaning of liberty changed during the ending years of the Gilded Age (1870-1900) through the beginning ages of the Civil Rights Movement (1954-1968). Economic liberty took shape in the cases Allegeyer v. Louisiana (1897) and Lochner v. New York (1905). Civil liberties would take several more years to come into the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction. The case Gitlow v. New York (1925) began the establishment of incorporation of the Bill of Rights to the states, otherwise known as our fundamental liberties (note: The Supreme Court used selective incorporation, however). In the case U.S. v. Carolene Products (1938), the court stated that it would impose higher scrutiny to laws that violated the Bill of Rights. This paper attempts to rationalize that legal realism and sociological jurisprudence, both established by Roscoe Pound, changed the way we view liberty in the modern day. In a span of just under 50 years, the court retreated from substantive Due Process of economic liberty to substantive Due Process of civil liberty and human rights. Rulings such as Korematsu v. U.S. (1945), which established strict scrutiny, were the stepping stones of the growing Civil Rights Movement that would take the nation by storm from the mid-1950s until the end of the 1960s. Lastly, this paper argues that, while it may not be publicly known to all, Supreme Court decisions shape the way our laws are created, and thus, how our democratic society functions as a whole. We must not take our liberty for granted

Dormancy in the Seed of Western Wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii, Rydb.)

As is the case with many of the native grass species, western wheatgrass can at times possess a high amount of seed dormancy. This dormancy makes the determination of pure live seed difficult. Consequently, laboratory methods have been sought to completely break this dormancy in order to obtain a true determination of seed viability. Such methods as embryo excision, lemma and plea removal, caryopsis clipping, alternating temperatures, and others have been used with varying success. The method now employed by the South Dakota State Seed Laboratory to determine the viability of ungerminated grass seeds is the tetrazolium test. After the 28-day germination period, the ungerminated seeds are bisected longitudinally and placed in 1.0% tetrazolium solution for four hours. At the end of that period the seeds which have red or pink embryos are considered dormant seeds. The rest are considered dead. The purpose of this study was to attempt to determine the possible cause of the induction of dormancy in western wheatgrass seeds and assess the effects of alternate seed treatment methods on the breaking of this dormancy

An analysis of mixed integer linear sets based on lattice point free convex sets

Split cuts are cutting planes for mixed integer programs whose validity is derived from maximal lattice point free polyhedra of the form $S:=\{x : \pi_0 \leq \pi^T x \leq \pi_0+1 \}$ called split sets. The set obtained by adding all split cuts is called the split closure, and the split closure is known to be a polyhedron. A split set $S$ has max-facet-width equal to one in the sense that $\max\{\pi^T x : x \in S \}-\min\{\pi^T x : x \in S \} \leq 1$. In this paper we consider using general lattice point free rational polyhedra to derive valid cuts for mixed integer linear sets. We say that lattice point free polyhedra with max-facet-width equal to $w$ have width size $w$. A split cut of width size $w$ is then a valid inequality whose validity follows from a lattice point free rational polyhedron of width size $w$. The $w$-th split closure is the set obtained by adding all valid inequalities of width size at most $w$. Our main result is a sufficient condition for the addition of a family of rational inequalities to result in a polyhedral relaxation. We then show that a corollary is that the $w$-th split closure is a polyhedron. Given this result, a natural question is which width size $w^*$ is required to design a finite cutting plane proof for the validity of an inequality. Specifically, for this value $w^*$, a finite cutting plane proof exists that uses lattice point free rational polyhedra of width size at most $w^*$, but no finite cutting plane proof that only uses lattice point free rational polyhedra of width size smaller than $w^*$. We characterize $w^*$ based on the faces of the linear relaxation

Progress and challenges in identifying molecular mechanisms underlying host and vector manipulation by plant viruses.

Plant virus infection fundamentally alters chemical and behavioral phenotypes of hosts and vectors. These alterations often enhance virus transmission, leading researchers to surmise that such effects are manipulations caused by virus adaptations and not just by-products of pathology. But identification of the virus components behind manipulation is missing from most studies performed to date. Here, we evaluate causative empirical evidence that virus components are the drivers of manipulated host and vector phenotypes. To do so, we link findings and methodologies on virus pathology with observational and functional genomics studies on virus manipulation. Our synthesis provides an overview of progress, areas of synergy, and new approaches that will lead to an improved mechanistic understanding of host and vector manipulation by plant viruses

Evolutionary Determinants of Host and Vector Manipulation by Plant Viruses.

Plant viruses possess adaptations for facilitating acquisition, retention, and inoculation by vectors. Until recently, it was hypothesized that these adaptations are limited to virus proteins that enable virions to bind to vector mouthparts or invade their internal tissues. However, increasing evidence suggests that viruses can also manipulate host plant phenotypes and vector behaviors in ways that enhance their own transmission. Manipulation of vector-host interactions occurs through virus effects on host cues that mediate vector orientation, feeding, and dispersal behaviors, and thereby, the probability of virus transmission. Effects on host phenotypes vary by pathosystem but show a remarkable degree of convergence among unrelated viruses whose transmission is favored by the same vector behaviors. Convergence based on transmission mechanism, rather than phylogeny, supports the hypothesis that virus effects are adaptive and not just by-products of infection. Based on this, it has been proposed that viruses manipulate hosts through multifunctional proteins that facilitate exploitation of host resources and elicitation of specific changes in host phenotypes. But this proposition is rarely discussed in the context of the numerous constraints on virus evolution imposed by molecular and environmental factors, which figure prominently in research on virus-host interactions not dealing with host manipulation. To explore the implications of this oversight, we synthesized available literature to identify patterns in virus effects among pathogens with shared transmission mechanisms and discussed the results of this synthesis in the context of molecular and environmental constraints on virus evolution, limitations of existing studies, and prospects for future research