The emerging international constitutional order: the implications of hierarchy in international law for the coherence and legitimacy of international decision-making

The article examines the contours and implications of the emerging international constitutional order. The "constitutional" nature of this order relates to the fact that it contains certain fundamental substantive and structural norms that form a supreme legal framework for the exercise of public power. The substantive elements primarily include the value system of the international legal order, meaning norms of positive law with a strong ethical underpinning (notably human rights norms) that have acquired a special hierarchical standing vis-à-vis other international norms through state practice. The structural elements refer to the subjects of the international legal order that collectively constitute the international community (polity), as well as the mechanisms for enforcement of the international value system.This vision of an international constitutional model is inspired by the intensification in the shift of public decision-making away from the nation state towards international actors of a regional (for example EU) or functional (for example WTO, UN) nature, and its eroding impact on the notion of a “total” constitutional order, where the fundamental substantive and structural norms that form the supreme legal framework for the exercise of public power are concentrated in the nation state. It is also inspired by the belief that such a supreme legal framework is only possible in a system where different national,regional and functional legal orders complement each other in order to form an international constitutional order

Resistance or tolerance: an examination of aphid (Sitobion yakini) phloem feeding on Betta and Betta-Dn wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Engineering pest resistance into crops is important. However, the mechanisms of resistance are not clearly understood. In this study, we examined the effects of aphid feeding on Russian wheat aphid-resistant and -susceptible cultivars of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.); Betta-Dn and Betta, respectively, by the grass aphid, Sitobion yakini (Eastop). These cultivars were grown with or without aphid colonies. In each case, we examined the plants specifically for the formation of wound callose associated with the phloem, using aniline blue and fluorescence microscopy. We observed that aphid feeding stimulated the formation of wound callose in the susceptible cultivar, but that callose was comparatively reduced in the resistant cultivar of wheat. In a separate series of experiments, the xenobiotic, 5, 6-carboxyfluorescein diacetate was applied to attached sink leaves, distal to feeding aphids. When leaf segments were examined four hours after application, little evidence of phloem transport of the fluorescent cleavage product, 5, 6-carboxyfluorescein (5, 6-CF), was evident below known aphid-probed sieve tubes. Low levels or absence of 5, 6-CF indicates that either the aphids have successfully redirected sap to themselves, or that the phloem is no longer functional. In contrast, 5, 6-CF transport was evident below sites of aphid probing in Betta-Dn, suggesting that the phloem was still capable of long-distance transport. In addition, callose deposition was reduced in Betta-Dn leaf phloem and it is surmised that transport was not as affected by aphid feeding in the resistant cultivar. This indicates that the ‘resistant’ wheat cultivar may in fact be tolerant to aphid feeding by successfully overcoming the nutrient drain that feeding aphids imposed on the phloem transport system

The Emerging International Constitutional order: The Implications of Hierarchy in International Law for the Coherence and Legitimacy of International Decision-Making

The article examines the contours and implications of the emerging international constitutional order. The "constitutional" nature of this order relates to the fact that it contains certain fundamental substantive and structural norms that form a supreme legal framework for the exercise of public power. The substantive elements primarily include the value system of the international legal order, meaning norms of positive law with a strong ethical underpinning (notably human rights norms) that have acquired a special hierarchical standing vis-à-vis other international norms through state practice. The structural elements refer to the subjects of the international legal order that collectively constitute the international community (polity), as well as the mechanisms for enforcement of the international value system.   This vision of an international constitutional model is inspired by the intensification in the shift of public decision-making away from the nation state towards international actors of a regional (for example EU) or functional (for example WTO, UN) nature, and its eroding impact on the notion of a “total” constitutional order, where the fundamental substantive and structural norms that form the supreme legal framework for the exercise of public power are concentrated in the nation state. It is also inspired by the belief that such a supreme legal framework is only possible in a system where different national, regional and functional legal orders complement each other in order to form an international constitutional order.   &nbsp

Origins of Sinuous and Braided Channels on Ascraeus Mons, Mars - A Keck Geology Consortium Undergraduate Research Project

Water has clearly played an important part in the geological evolution of Mars. There are many features on Mars that were almost certainly formed by fluvial processes -- for example, the channels Kasei Valles and Ares Vallis in the Chryse Planitia area of Mars are almost certainly fluvial features. On the other hand, there are many channel features that are much more difficult to interpret -- and have been variously attributed to volcanic and fluvial processes. Clearly unraveling the details of the role of water on Mars is extremely important, especially in the context of the search of extinct or extant life. In this project we built on our recent work in determining the origin of one channel on the southwest rift apron of Ascraeus Mons. This project, funded by the Keck Geology Consortium and involving 4 undergraduate geology majors took advantage of the recently available datasets to map and analyze similar features on Ascraeus Mons and some other areas of Mars. A clearer understanding of how these particular channel features formed might lead to the development of better criteria to distinguish how other Martian channel features formed. Ultimately this might provide us with a better understanding of the role of volcanic and fluvial processes in the geological evolution of Mars

Correlation between physical activity and sedentary behavior with healthy and unhealthy behaviors in Italy and Tuscan region: a cross sectional study

Introduction. Regular physical activity (PA) has associated with various positive health aspects such as a decreased risk of chronic or generic illnesses, furthermore, a sedentary lifestyle has been asso- ciated with health problems such as obesity. To examine the rela- tionship between patterns of PA, screen-based media use (SBM) and social health indicators within a specific demographic group and highlight the regional vs. national differences in these relationships. Methods. The data is drawn from the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) database, a national cross-sec- tional survey in a representative sample (N = 3920) of students aged 11-13-15 years and compared to those of the Tuscan region (N = 3381). Variables considered other than PA and SBM use includes positive health indicators such as physical health status, quality of family and peer relationships, fruit consumption, break- fast consumption as well as negative health indicators, such as health complaints, smoking and alcohol use. Results. Some positive health indicators showed a positive cor- relation with PA. Students adopting healthy behaviours often met the Physical Activity Guide Line (PAGL). On the contrary, negative health indicators were associated with PAGL in a neg- ative way. In general SBM was positively related to several of the negative health indicators and vice versa. SBM was related in a positive fashion to tobacco use that repre- sents a protective factor. Discussion. The results show that met PAGL is associated with positive health indicators and that high levels of SBM use is asso- ciated with negative health indicators. The study also emphasizes the relationship between PA, SBM use and social factors. Increas- ing PA and decreasing SBM use should be an aim in general health behaviour promotion

Age of diagnosis for congenital hearing loss at Universitas Hospital, Bloemfontein

Background. Congenital hearing loss affects 3 - 6/1 000 children worldwide. The benefits of early identification of hearing loss and early intervention have been clearly established. There are no previous studies reporting on the age of diagnosis of congenital hearing loss in the Free State province.Objectives. To determine the age of diagnosis of congenital hearing loss in the Otorhinolaryngology Clinic at Universitas Hospital. Secondary aims included determining age at first visit, as well as the time delay between first visit and diagnosis, and documenting any interventions which took  place.Methods. A retrospective, descriptive study was undertaken, analysing data from 2001 to 2010.Results. A total of 260 cases of congenital hearing loss were analysed. The median age of diagnosis of hearing loss was 44.5 months. The median age of first visit was 40.9 months, and the median delay between first visit and diagnosis was 49 days.Conclusions. The median age of diagnosis far exceeds national and  international benchmarks. This has a profoundly negative impact on the development and outcomes of children with hearing loss. These results have been used to motivate for the expansion of hearing screening and diagnostic services in the province

Genome Evolution in the Obligate but Environmentally Active Luminous Symbionts of Flashlight Fish

The luminous bacterial symbionts of anomalopid flashlight fish are thought to be obligately dependent on their hosts for growth and share several aspects of genome evolution with unrelated obligate symbionts, including genome reduction. However, in contrast to most obligate bacteria, anomalopid symbionts have an active environmental phase that may be important for symbiont transmission. Here we investigated patterns of evolution between anomalopid symbionts compared with patterns in free-living relatives and unrelated obligate symbionts to determine if trends common to obligate symbionts are also found in anomalopid symbionts. Two symbionts, ?Candidatus Photodesmus katoptron? and ?Candidatus Photodesmus blepharus,? have genomes that are highly similar in gene content and order, suggesting genome stasis similar to ancient obligate symbionts present in insect lineages. This genome stasis exists in spite of the symbiont?s inferred ability to recombine, which is frequently lacking in obligate symbionts with stable genomes. Additionally, we used genome comparisons and tests of selection to infer which genes may be particularly important for the symbiont?s ecology compared with relatives. In keeping with obligate dependence, substitution patterns suggest that most symbiont genes are experiencing relaxed purifying selection compared with relatives. However, genes involved in motility and carbon storage, which are likely to be used outside the host, appear to be under increased purifying selection. Two chemoreceptor chemotaxis genes are retained by both species and show high conservation with amino acid sensing genes, suggesting that the bacteria may actively seek out hosts using chemotaxis toward amino acids, which the symbionts are not able to synthesize

Origin of Sinuous Channels on the SW Apron of Ascraeus Mons and the Surrounding Plains, Mars

Ascraeus Mons is one of three large shield volcanoes located along a NE-SW trending lineament atop the Tharsis Bulge on Mars. Spacecraft images, beginning with Viking in the 1970 s, revealed that the SW rift apron of Ascraeus Mons is cut by numerous sinuous channels, many of which originate from large, elongated, bowl shaped amphitheaters known as the Ascraeus Chasmata. A number of these channels can be traced onto the flatter plains to the east of the rift apron. These features have been interpreted as either fluvial [1] or volcanic [2] in origin. Most recently, it has been shown that one of the longest channels on the Ascraeus rift apron appears to transition into a roofed-over lava channel or lava tube at its distal end, and thus the entire feature is likely of a volcanic origin [2]. In addition, field observations of recent lava flows on Hawaii have shown that lava is capable of producing features such as the complex braided and anastomosing channels and streamlined islands that are observed in the Ascraeus features [2]