Size Doesn't Matter: Towards a More Inclusive Philosophy of Biology

notes: As the primary author, O’Malley drafted the paper, and gathered and analysed data (scientific papers and talks). Conceptual analysis was conducted by both authors.publication-status: Publishedtypes: ArticlePhilosophers of biology, along with everyone else, generally perceive life to fall into two broad categories, the microbes and macrobes, and then pay most of their attention to the latter. ‘Macrobe’ is the word we propose for larger life forms, and we use it as part of an argument for microbial equality. We suggest that taking more notice of microbes – the dominant life form on the planet, both now and throughout evolutionary history – will transform some of the philosophy of biology’s standard ideas on ontology, evolution, taxonomy and biodiversity. We set out a number of recent developments in microbiology – including biofilm formation, chemotaxis, quorum sensing and gene transfer – that highlight microbial capacities for cooperation and communication and break down conventional thinking that microbes are solely or primarily single-celled organisms. These insights also bring new perspectives to the levels of selection debate, as well as to discussions of the evolution and nature of multicellularity, and to neo-Darwinian understandings of evolutionary mechanisms. We show how these revisions lead to further complications for microbial classification and the philosophies of systematics and biodiversity. Incorporating microbial insights into the philosophy of biology will challenge many of its assumptions, but also give greater scope and depth to its investigations

Honey and propolis production, hygiene and defense behaviors of two generations of Africanized honey bees

Phenotypic characters of honeybees, relevant to beekeepers, can be evaluated by studying correlations between them, and the correlated characteristics can be evaluated in the short term to assist in monitoring of annual genetic progress. This work therefore aims to evaluate the production of honey and propolis, the hygiene and defensive behaviours of two generations of Africanized Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera, Apidae), to estimate the correlations between them and their heritability. We used 30 Langstroth beehives in apiaries in Marechal Cândido Rondon, Paraná State, Brazil. We used a method of drilling pupae to evaluate hygiene behaviour and the velveteen ball method to test defensive behaviour. We selected ten colonies which had the best honey and propolis production, and which produced F1 queens that were then transferred to beehives at an experimental farm, in order to observe honey and propolis production, hygiene and defence behaviours of their female offspring. The estimated differences for each characteristic between the generations, the correlations between them within each generation and their heritability suggest that selection of colonies based on propolis production was more efficient at maintaining this high production than was selection based on honey production according to the performance of the colonies for this characteristic. The selected behavioural characteristics can be used to enhance performance, but not for improving yield characteristics evaluated

Estimates of covariance components for hygienic behavior in Africanized honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Genetic and phenotypic parameters considering the genetic effect on hygienic behavior of queen and workers from 40 Africanized honeybees colonies were estimated separately. Maternal origin of queens was controlled whereas the paternal was unknown, and different groups of workers were considered in three seasons, October 2006, April 2007 and August 2007, but with the same queen. Colonies were 21 honey producers and 19 royal jelly producers. After the method of freezing capped brood, hygienic behavior was determined by the ratio between the number of dead capped brood removed at 24, 48 and 72 hours and the total number of capped brood at zero hour. Data was submitted to single and three traits analyses using Bayesian inference. Estimates of direct heritability at 24, 48 and 72 hours (0.10, 0.11 and 0.11) were identical to the motherly ones. Estimates by three trait analysis of direct heritability were 0.28, 0.15, 0.24, and of maternal heritability were 0.23, 0.29, 0.27, at 24, 48 and 72 hours, respectively. Correlations between maternal and genetic effects were 0.12, 0.09 and - 0.08 at, 24, 48 and 72 hours, respectively. Correlation between 24 and 48 hours was 0.49; between 24 and 72 hours, 0.40; and between 48 and 72 hours, 0.47. Moderate genetic correlations with the number of capped brood removed until 48 and 72 hours indicate that after the selection of a few generations, these traits can become an efficient criterion for selection in 24 hours

Desenvolvimento de colônias de abelhas com diferentes alimentos protéicos Development of honeybee colonies under protein diets

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o desempenho de produtos regionais do Nordeste na alimentação de colônias de abelhas (Apis mellifera), em um período de escassez de floradas. Foram fornecidas dietas às abelhas, contendo 20% de proteína bruta, à base de feno de mandioca (Manihot esculenta) e farinha de vagem de algaroba (Prosopis juliflora), feno de mandioca e farelo de babaçu (Orbygnia martiana), farelo de babaçu e Purilac (sucedâneo para bezerros da marca Purina) e pólen apícola de Palmae. As colônias foram analisadas quanto ao peso e às áreas de alimento e cria. Não foi observada diferença significativa entre os tratamentos em relação às áreas de cria. Apesar de a pasta com pólen ser a mais consumida, este alimento mostrou conversão alimentar menor do que as demais dietas fornecidas. As colônias que receberam pasta de feno de mandioca com farelo de babaçu tiveram maior peso final. Todos os alimentos mostraram-se eficientes na manutenção das colônias.<br>The objective of this work was to evaluate the efficiency of some regional products of Brazil Northeast to feed Apis mellifera colonies. Diets with 20% of crude protein made of cassava hay (Manihot esculenta) and mesquite pod meal (Prosopis juliflora), cassava hay and babassu bran (Orbygnia martiana), babassu bran and Purilac (succedaneous for calfskin from Purina) and Palmae pollen were offered to the honeybees. Colonies were evaluated for weight gain, store area and brood area. There was no significant difference among the treatments in relation to the brood areas. Pollen treatment showed the highest intake but also showed the lowest food conversion. Beehives that received diet with cassava hay and babassu flour showed greater final weight gain. All diets were efficient in the maintenance of the colonies