Filling in the Gaps: Extrasystemic Mechanisms for Addressing Imbalances between the International Legal Operating System and the Normative System

What happens when there is an imbalance between the operating and normative systems of international law? One obvious outcome is nothing; the imbalance remains, and the norms of the system are not given full effect. For example, human rights provisions abound, but they can be widely ignored in the absence of enforcement mechanisms. In this article, we identify several other possibilities. Our contention is that adaptations occur that compensate for, or at least mitigate, the effects of the operating-normative systems imbalance. Specifically, we explore four kinds of extrasystemic (at least from the perspective of the international legal system) adaptations: (1) actions by nongovernmental organizations and transnational networks, (2) internalization of international law, (3) domestic legal and political processes, and (4) soft law mechanisms. Our contention is that the international legal system is partly kept functioning by these actors and mechanisms, even though they technically fall outside the framework of the international legal system

Ways of explaining sexual harassment: motivating, enabling and legitimizing processes

Diehl C. Ways of explaining sexual harassment: motivating, enabling and legitimizing processes. Bielefeld: Universität Bielefeld; 2014.This dissertation aims to contribute to a comprehensive explanation of sexual harassment by the investigation of three social-psychological processes, which seem to crucially contribute to the etiology of sexual harassment: motivation to sexually harass (e.g., power or sexuality), enabling processes (e.g., through diverse situational cues), and legitimization of sexually harassing behavior (e.g., by applying myths about sexual harassment). By consolidating these three processes into one multi-factor theory, diverse shortcomings of previous, mostly single-factor theories in sexual harassment research can be solved (see Pina, Gannon, & Saunders, 2009, for a detailed critique), and a broader but also more accurate explanation of the complex phenomenon sexual harassment is provided. In this work a three-factor model is introduced and tested, which describes the hypothesized direct effects of motivation, enabling processes, and legitimization on sexually harassing behavior, as well as various hypothesized interactions between the three model components. The empirical part of this work is based upon three manuscripts, which test different components of the model. They contain mostly experimental studies, in order to identify causal relationships between the contributing factors and sexually harassing behavior. (a) In Manuscript #1, motivating and legitimizing processes on the perpetrators’ side are explored. Combining evolutionary and socio-cultural accounts to explain sexual harassment, it represents the first attempt to simultaneously test power and sexuality as the prevailing motives for specific forms of harassing behavior (Gelfand, Fitzgerald, & Drasgow, 1995): Power is assumed to lead to gender harassment, which includes hostile and degrading gender-related behavior. Sexuality is assumed to lead to unwanted sexual attention, which includes more ambiguous but also offensive and unrequited sexually connoted behavior. Furthermore, legitimization tendencies via sexual harassment myth acceptance (SHMA; Lonsway, Cortina, & Magley, 2007), and their interplay with the two motives is tested. In this study, sexually harassing behavior is measured in vivo by using a refined version of the computer harassment paradigm (Dall’Ara & Maass, 1999). As part of an alleged computer-chat task, male participants can choose between sexualized personal remarks (representing unwanted sexual attention), sexist jokes (representing gender harassment), and non-harassing material to send to an attractive female target. The findings indicate that power and sexuality are two differentiable motives, both predicting different forms of sexual harassment: Sexually motivated men only showed unwanted sexual attention, while power motivated men particularly showed gender harassment but also unwanted sexual attention. This latter effect may indicate that unwanted sexual attention seems to be functional also for a hostile motive in order to create an embarrassing and humiliating atmosphere. Furthermore, SHMA fully mediated the effect of a power motive on gender harassment, but did not mediate effects on unwanted sexual attention. This finding documents that both, power motivation and overtly hostile behavior (i.e., gender harassment), seem to elicit a certain need for justification and neutralization. A sexual motive, however, seems to be more socially acceptable, and unwanted sexual attention seems to be ambiguous enough to be re-interpreted as an attempt to flirt. Thus, Manuscript #1 shows first evidence for the crucial role of two components of the proposed model to explain sexual harassment: motivational and legitimizing processes. Furthermore, it approves the assumption that the model components should be examined in their interplay with each other. (b) In Manuscript #2, the role of enabling processes is studied, while taking again motivational processes into account. The focus of the study is on effects of situational cues on the relative impact of pre-existing motivational structures on actual sexual harassing behavior. This predicted influence of situational cues was investigated in an experimental study, in which either power or sexuality was primed in two different conditions. Before entering the laboratory, the male participants are briefly exposed to a wall poster designed to activate either one of both concepts. In the following, participants undergo the chat paradigm as described in Manuscript #1. The results mostly replicate and extend the findings described in Manuscript #1: Sexual motivation specifically predicted unwanted sexual attention harassment, whereas power motivation specifically predicted gender harassment. Importantly, priming of sexuality versus power selectively strengthened the link between the sexual motive and unwanted sexual attention, and between the power motive and gender harassment, respectively. Thus, Manuscript #2 shows that a subtle variation of context variables differentially affects the relative impact of power- and sexual motives on sexually harassing behavior. This underlines the relevance of enabling processes, especially in interaction with motivational processes, for the explanation of sexual harassment. (c) Manuscript #3 presents the attempt to counteract legitimizing processes as one starting point for the prevention of sexual harassment. Two studies address knowledge about the consequences of sexual harassment and empathy with the targets as two main factors reducing SHMA, and also reducing the likelihood to sexually harass (LSH). In Study 1, participants read a newspaper-style text describing sexual harassment, depending on condition, as either a harmless phenomenon (i.e., consequences are downplayed) or a relevant problem in society (i.e., consequences are detailed). Additionally, participants’ level of empathy is assessed. Results show that reporting about sexual harassment as either a harmless phenomenon or a relevant problem in society significantly influenced participants’ SHMA. This effect is moderated by participants’ level of empathy. Reading the text that detailed the negative consequences of sexual harassment for its targets led to a reduction in SHMA only for persons low in empathy. These results provide first evidence that confronting participants with the actual consequences of sexual harassment leads to decreased legitimization. Furthermore, this attempt to counteract legitimizing processes seems to be particularly effective for persons with low levels of empathy, which supports the relevance of the few existing empathy trainings to prevent sexual harassment (e.g., Schewe & O’Donohue, 1993). In Study 2, an alternative way of teaching people the consequences of sexual harassment was used by harnessing the influence of empathy. Participants’ perspective taking is manipulated by presenting them an eyewitness report about a sexual harassment case at the workplace either from a female target’s perspective, or from a male perpetrator’s perspective. It was hypothesized that taking the target’s perspective (but not the harasser’s perspective) makes participants simultaneously learn about the serious consequences of harassment, which again reduces SHMA but also male participants’ LSH. In a third condition participants read a neutral text about interactions at the workplace with no reference to sexual harassment. As assumed, learning about a sexual harassment case from the target’s perspective lead to significantly lower SHMA, compared to learning about the same case from the perpetrator’s perspective and compared to the control condition. Furthermore, for the male subsample, getting to know the case from the target’s perspective additionally led to lower LSH compared to the control condition. In conclusion, both approaches successfully counteracted legitimizing processes (i.e., SHMA): equipping people with knowledge about the negative consequences of sexual harassment and instructing them to take the target’s perspective. Beyond the effect on legitimization, Study 2 also shows a direct effect on anticipated future behavior. Thus, the results of Manuscript #3 supports the assumption that the investigation of legitimizing processes may be a specifically important and promising starting point for the prevention of sexual harassment. References: Dall’Ara, E., & Maass, A. (1999). Studying sexual harassment in the laboratory: Are egalitarian women at greater risk? Sex Roles, 41, 681-704. doi:10.1023/A:1018816025988 Gelfand, M. J., Fitzgerald, L. F., & Drasgow, F. (1995). The structure of sexual harassment: A confirmatory analysis across cultures and settings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47, 164–177. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1995.1033 Lonsway, K. A., Cortina, L. M., & Magley, V. J. (2008). Sexual harassment mythology: Definition, conceptualization, and measurement. Sex Roles, 58, 599-615. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9367-1 Pina, A., Gannon, T. A., & Saunders, B. (2009). An overview of the literature on sexual harassment: Perpetrator, theory, and treatment issues. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 126-138. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.002 Schewe, P., & O’Donohue, W. T. (1993). Sexual abuse prevention with high-risk males: The roles of victim empathy and rape myths. Violence and Victims, 8, 339–351

Bridging the International Law-International Relations Divide: Taking Stock of Progress

International law (IL) and international relations (IR) have long been considered separate academic enterprises, with their own theoretical orientations, methodologies, and publishing outlets. The net effect has been that the insights and research findings of one discipline have largely been unknown or ignored in the other. This has occurred despite the commonality of focusing on many of the same substantive interests, namely international cooperation in general, issues of war and peace, environmental regulation, and trade. This has led to numerous calls over the past two decades to bridge the international law and international relations divide. Yet one recent work claims that the frequency of such appeals have exceeded the number of efforts to fulfill those suggestions. Others have claimed that there are large and growing intersections between the fields. How much progress has been made in the last two decades toward bridging the gap between international law and international relations? Various claims have been made, but little systematic evidence has been produced. In particular, the evidence offered has not necessarily been able to document the form and depth of the international relations-international law interface. This study examines the progress, or perhaps the lack thereof, made over the last twenty years in bringing together the disciplines of international law and international relations. In doing so, we survey two leading journals in international law and five prominent journals in international relations over the period 1990-2010, searching for cross-pollination of ideas and approaches. We also examine an interdisciplinary journal, the primary purpose of which has been to facilitate collaboration across the two disciplines. When considering the international law journals, we look at the extent to which social science methods and objectives, as well as international relations subject matter, have been reflected in the articles. In international relations journals, we consider whether international law has become a subject matter of scholarly inquiry, given that it was largely ignored for many years. The goal is to track over time the intersection of the two disciplines and describe the extent and type of their interaction. We begin with a discussion of how the two disciplines became separated after an early period of convergence, explain the fundamental bases that led to the divide, and characterize their contemporary differences. We then examine the various pleas for integration and how these might be accomplished. We note some recent trends toward reconciliation between IL and IR. These sections serve as a prelude to our empirical analysis of published articles, where we describe our choice of journals and the dimensions of analysis. We present our findings on whether and by how much the gap between international law and international relations has been bridged. This includes an overview of the international law articles studied, specific analyses of law and political science journals respectively, and a consideration of an interdisciplinary journal. Finally, we summarize our findings and discuss their implications for the future of IL-IR research

Exploring International Law: Opportunities and Challenges for Political Science Research

Peer Reviewedhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/148360/1/1521-9488.00223.pd

Therapeutic drug monitoring of rivastigmine and donepezil under consideration of CYP2D6 genotype-dependent metabolism of donepezil

Background: The efficacy of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChE-I) might depend on blood concentration. While rivastigmine metabolism is independent of the cytochrome P450 system, its isoenzymes, especially CYP2D6, metabolize donepezil. CYP2D6 polymorphisms can cause altered enzyme activity resulting in lower or higher than expected drug concentrations of donepezil. Objective: We investigated correlations between clinical efficacy and serum concentrations of rivastigmine and donepezil under special consideration of CYP2D6 genotype or gene dose-dependent metabolism of donepezil. Methods: Serum concentrations of donepezil and rivastigmine were measured by liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and allele-specific PCR were performed to assess CYP2D6 genotype and gene dose. Results: Patients treated with rivastigmine (n=28) or donepezil (n=48) were included in the study. Both gene dose and metabolism type significantly predicted the level of donepezil serum concentration (p=0.019 and p=0.013, respectively). In the rivastigmine group, changes of the word list delayed recall subtest before treatment and under stable medication were significantly associated with rivastigmine serum levels (beta=0.465;p=0.018). Drug serum concentrations were outside the recommended range in a substantial percentage of participants, which might have contributed to poor correlations between changes in cognitive measures and drug concentrations. Donepezil serum concentrations significantly depended on CYP2D6 gene dose. Conclusion: Testing AChE-I serum concentration should be considered in patients without clinical response to treatment or those with severe side effects. Patients with donepezil drug levels outside the recommended range might additionally profit from CYP2D6 genotyping or treatment with an AChE-I independent of CYP metabolism

Serum Concentrations of Cholinesterase Inhibitors in Patients With Alzheimer's Dementia Are Frequently Below the Recommended Levels

Background: Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChE-I) are recommended for the treatment of cognitive symptoms but also of behavioral and psychological symptoms in dementia. They are widely used not only in Alzheimer's disease, but also in other forms of dementia. Efficacy of treatment might depend on serum concentration of the respective AChE-I. Objective: In patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's dementia, we measured serum concentrations of hepatically metabolized donepezil and renally excreted rivastigmine and investigated possible modifiers. Additionally, we looked at correlations between serum concentrations and efficacy for both drugs. Methods: Serum concentrations of donepezil and rivastigmine were measured by liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Allele specific PCR were performed to determine CYP2D6 genotype and gene dose. Clinical efficacy was assessed by changes of the subtest wordlist delayed recall of the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease-Neuropsychological Assessment Battery (CERAD-NAB). Results: Sixty-seven patients treated with a stable dosage of donepezil 10 mg (n=41) or rivastigmine 9.5 mg (n=26) were included. Mean serum concentration of donepezil and rivastigmine were 41.2 and 6.5 ng/ml, respectively. Serum concentrations were below the recommended range in 73% of the subjects in the donepezil group and in 65% of the participants in the rivastigmine group. When applying a dose-related reference, ranges 63% of patients in the donepezil group and 32% in the rivastigmine group had concentrations below the expected range. Gene dose, sex, and duration of treatment significantly predicted donepezil serum concentration (p=0.046, p=0.001, p=0.030 respectively). Only for rivastigmine did the serum concentration significantly contribute to the regression model predicting changes on the subtest word list delayed recall (β=0.472; p=0.019). Conclusions: Serum concentrations of about two thirds of the patients were below the recommended range. When not looking at absolute values but at the dose-related reference ranges, these numbers improved but still 32%, respectively 63% of patients had low serum concentrations. High serum concentrations of rivastigmine predicted clinical response to cognition. Therapeutic drug monitoring might help to identify the cause of poor clinical response to cognition and behavioral and psychological symptoms in patients with AChE-I treatment

Parameters Governing the Community Structure and Element Turnover in Kermadec Volcanic Ash and Hydrothermal Fluids as Monitored by Inorganic Electron Donor Consumption, Autotrophic CO2 Fixation and 16S Tags of the Transcriptome in Incubation Experiments

The microbial community composition and its functionality was assessed for hydrothermal fluids and volcanic ash sediments from Haungaroa and hydrothermal fluids from the Brothers volcano in the Kermadec island arc (New Zealand). The Haungaroa volcanic ash sediments were dominated by epsilonproteobacterial Sulfurovum sp. Ratios of electron donor consumption to CO2 fixation from respective sediment incubations indicated that sulfide oxidation appeared to fuel autotrophic CO2 fixation, coinciding with thermodynamic estimates predicting sulfide oxidation as the major energy source in the environment. Transcript analyses with the sulfide-supplemented sediment slurries demonstrated that Sulfurovum prevailed in the experiments as well. Hence, our sediment incubations appeared to simulate environmental conditions well suggesting that sulfide oxidation catalyzed by Sulfurovum members drive biomass synthesis in the volcanic ash sediments. For the Haungaroa fluids no inorganic electron donor and responsible microorganisms could be identified that clearly stimulated autotrophic CO2 fixation. In the Brothers hydrothermal fluids Sulfurimonas (49%) and Hydrogenovibrio/Thiomicrospira (15%) species prevailed. Respective fluid incubations exhibited highest autotrophic CO2 fixation if supplemented with iron(II) or hydrogen. Likewise catabolic energy calculations predicted primarily iron(II) but also hydrogen oxidation as major energy sources in the natural fluids. According to transcript analyses with material from the incubation experiments Thiomicrospira/Hydrogenovibrio species dominated, outcompeting Sulfurimonas. Given that experimental conditions likely only simulated environmental conditions that cause Thiomicrospira/Hydrogenovibrio but not Sulfurimonas to thrive, it remains unclear which environmental parameters determine Sulfurimonas’ dominance in the Brothers natural hydrothermal fluids

“I’ve Heard of It, Yes, but I Can’t Remember What Exactly It Was”—A Qualitative Study on Awareness, Knowledge, and Use of the UV Index

Pharmacists and pharmaceutical technicians play an important role in counselling customers regarding sunscreen use and sun protection measures. A potentially helpful tool that can be used during counselling is the ultraviolet index (UVI), which informs individuals when and what sun protection measures are needed at a specific place and time. Our aim in this qualitative study was to explore awareness, knowledge, and use of the UVI during counselling in pharmacies. We used semi-structured interviews with pharmacists and pharmaceutical technicians (n = 20) to answer our research questions. Interviews were audiotaped, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using qualitative content analysis. During the interviews pharmacists and pharmaceutical technicians revealed a lot of uncertainty and lack of knowledge regarding the UVI. Eight professionals were able to give a correct definition of UVI. Amongst others, the UVI was confused with sun protection factor. Overall, the UVI was hardly used during the counselling of customers. The UVI was developed to provide guidance when which type of sun protection is required to avoid detrimental effects of ultraviolet radiation. For effective implementation, both the general population and health professionals (e.g., pharmacists) have to increase their knowledge about the UVI. This would strengthen its use during professional counselling in pharmacies and may help to reduce the incidence of skin cancer over the long term

Tennessee’s Youth in Juvenile Justice Facilities: Mental Health and Substance Abuse Issues

In order to assess the prevalence of mental health and substance abuse among youth in one state’s juvenile justice facilities, a survey was conducted of 40 Tennessee facilities. A total of 1215 youth were being held on the “one day census” that was taken as part of the survey. The survey documented many mental health and substance abuse issues: 1) 53 percent of the youth in juvenile justice facilities were experiencing mental health problems; 2) 15 percent were taking some type of psychiatric medicine while in the juvenile justice facility; 3) 42 percent were known to have substance abuse problems; and 4) 30 percent had co-occurring mental health and substance use problems. Policy and program recommendations based on these findings are discussed