The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs.

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs

Effecteurs moléculaires de lassociation Crassostrea gigas / Vibrio splendidus. Rôle de la porine OmpU dans les mécanismes de résistance et déchappement à la réponse immunitaire de lhôte.

Vibrio splendidus LGP32 est une bactérie pathogène associée aux épisodes de mortalités estivales qui affectent la production d'huître Crassostrea gigas depuis des décennies. Nous avons montré ici que la porine OmpU était un effecteur majeur de l'interaction V. splendidus / C. gigas. Nous avons pour cela construit un mutant ompU de V. splendidus. Celui-ci nous a permis de mo ntrer l'implication de OmpU (i) dans la résistance de V. splendidus aux antimicrobiens, incluant ceux de l'huître, (ii) dans la fitness chez l'huître, et (iii) dans la virulence en infections expérimentales (mortalités de 56 % pour le sauvage versus pour le 11% mutant). En accord avec ces résultats, nous avons montré que la délétion de ompU modifiait la sécrétion de protéines dont l'expression est contrôlée par les voies de régulation de la virulence (ToxR) et de l'intégrité membranaire (SigmaE). Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que OmpU jouait un rôle essentiel dans la reconnaissance par les hémocytes. En effet, (i) in vivo, les gènes hémocytaires répondent différemment à l'infection par le Vibrio sauvage ou ompU, et (ii) in vitro, OmpU est nécessaire à l'invasion hémocytaire par V. splendidus. Cette invasion utilise la phagocytose dépendante de l'intégrine b et la SOD extracellulaire du plasma d'huître comme opsonine qui lie OmpU. Ainsi, OmpU est un facteur de virulence majeur qui permet l'infection des hémocytes dans lesquels il est capable de survivre en inhibant la formation de radicaux oxygénés et de vacuoles acides. La résistance du Vibrio aux antimicrobiens hémocytaires de l'huître, elle-même dépendante de OmpU, est probablement un élément supplémentaire favorable à la survie intra-cellulaire.Vibrio splendidus LGP32 is a bacterial pathogen associated to the summer mortality outbreaks that have affected the production of Crassostrea gigas oysters over the past decades. We showed here that the OmpU porin is a major effector of the V. splendidus / C. gigas interaction. For that, we have constructed a ompU mutant of V. splendidus, and shown that the OmpU porin is implicated (i) in the resistance of V. splendidus to antimicrobials, including those of oyster, (ii) in its in vivo fitness, and (iii) in its virulence in oyster experimental infections (mortalities have been reduced from 56 % to 11 % upon mutation). In agreement, we have shown that the ompU deletion modified the expression of secreted proteins controlled by the virulence (ToxR) and the membrane integrity (SigmaE) regulation pathways. Furthermore, we have shown that OmpU has a major role in the recognition of V. splendidus by oyster hemocytes. Indeed, (i) in vivo, hemocyt e genes displayed differential responses to an infection with the wild-type or the ompU mutant, and (ii) in vitro, OmpU was necessary for hemocyte invasion by V. splendidus. This invasion process required the hemocyte b-integrin and the oyster plasma extracellular SOD, which was found to act as an opsonin recognizing OmpU. Thus, OmpU is a major virulence factor that allows infection of hemocytes in which V. splendidus is able to survive by inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species and the formation of acidic vacuoles. Resistance of V. splendidus to hemocyte antimicrobials, which is also OmpU-dependant, is probably an additional determinant of V. splendidus intracellular survival.MONTPELLIER-BU Sciences (341722106) / SudocSudocFranceF

An intimate link between antimicrobial peptide sequence diversity and binding to essential components of bacterial membranes

Antimicrobial peptides and proteins (AMPs) are widespread in the living kingdom. They are key effectors of defense reactions and mediators of competitions between organisms. They are often cationic and amphiphilic, which favors their interactions with the anionic membranes of microorganisms. Several AMP families do not directly alter membrane integrity but rather target conserved components of the bacterial membranes in a process that provides them with potent and specific antimicrobial activities. Thus, lipopolysaccharides (LPS), lipoteichoic acids (LTA) or the peptidoglycan precursor Lipid II are targeted by a broad series of AMPs. Studying the functional diversity of immune effectors tells us about the essential residues involved in AMP mechanism of action. Marine invertebrates have been found to produce a remarkable diversity of AMPs. Molluscan defensins and crustacean anti-LPS factors (ALF) are diverse in terms of amino acid sequence and show contrasted phenotypes in terms of antimicrobial activity. Their activity is directed essentially against Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria due their specific interactions with Lipid II or Lipid A, respectively. Through those interesting examples, we discuss here how sequence diversity generated throughout evolution informs us on residues required for essential molecular interaction at the bacterial membranes and subsequent antibacterial activity. Through the analysis of molecular variants having lost antibacterial activity or shaped novel functions, we also discuss the molecular bases of functional divergence in AMPs

The Antimicrobial Defense of the Pacific Oyster, Crassostrea gigas. How Diversity may Compensate for Scarcity in the Regulation of Resident/Pathogenic Microflora

Healthy oysters are inhabited by abundant microbial communities that vary with environmental conditions and coexist with immunocompetent cells in the circulatory system. In Crassostrea gigas oysters, the antimicrobial response, which is believed to control pathogens and commensals, relies on potent oxygen-dependent reactions and on antimicrobial peptides/proteins (AMPs) produced at low concentrations by epithelial cells and/or circulating hemocytes. In non-diseased oysters, hemocytes express basal levels of defensins (Cg-Defs) and proline-rich peptides (Cg-Prps). When the bacterial load dramatically increases in oyster tissues, both AMP families are driven to sites of infection by major hemocyte movements, together with bactericidal permeability/increasing proteins (Cg-BPIs) and given forms of big defensins (Cg-BigDef), whose expression in hemocytes is induced by infection. Co-localization of AMPs at sites of infection could be determinant in limiting invasion as synergies take place between peptide families, a phenomenon which is potentiated by the considerable diversity of AMP sequences. Besides, diversity occurs at the level of oyster AMP mechanisms of action, which range from membrane lysis for Cg-BPI to inhibition of metabolic pathways for Cg-Defs. The combination of such different mechanisms of action may account for the synergistic activities observed and compensate for the low peptide concentrations in C. gigas cells and tissues. To overcome the oyster antimicrobial response, oyster pathogens have developed subtle mechanisms of resistance and evasion. Thus, some Vibrio strains pathogenic for oysters are equipped with AMP-sensing systems that trigger resistance. More generally, the known oyster pathogenic vibrios have evolved strategies to evade intracellular killing through phagocytosis and the associated oxidative burst

The paralytic shellfish toxin, saxitoxin, enters the cytoplasm and induces apoptosis of oyster immune cells through a caspase-dependent pathway

Exposure of the toxin-producing dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella (A. catenella) was previously demonstrated to cause apoptosis of hemocytes in the oyster species Crassostrea gigas. In this work, a coumarin-labeled saxitoxin appeared to spread throughout the cytoplasm of the hemocytes. PSTs, including saxitoxin, were also shown to be directly responsible for inducing apoptosis in hemocytes, a process dependent on caspase activation and independent of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. A series of in vitro labeling and microscopy experiments revealed that STX and analogs there of induced nuclear condensation, phosphatidylserine exposure, membrane permeability, and DNA fragmentation of hemocytes. Unlike in vertebrates, gonyautoxin-5 (GTX5), which is present in high concentrations in A. catenella, was found to be more toxic than saxitoxin (STX) to oyster immune cells. Altogether, results show that PSTs produced by toxic dinoflagellates enter the cytoplasm and induce apoptosis of oyster immune cells through a caspase-dependent pathway. Because of the central role of hemocytes in mollusc immune defense, PST-induced death of hemocytes could negatively affect resistance of bivalve molluscs to microbial infection

The new insights into the oyster antimicrobial defense: Cellular, molecular and genetic view

Oysters are sessile filter feeders that live in close association with abundant and diverse communities of microorganisms that form the oyster microbiota. In such an association, cellular and molecular mechanisms have evolved to maintain oyster homeostasis upon stressful conditions including infection and changing environments. We give here cellular and molecular insights into the Crassostrea gigas antimicrobial defense system with focus on antimicrobial peptides and proteins (AMPs). This review highlights the central role of the hemocytes in the modulation and control of oyster antimicrobial response. As vehicles for AMPs and other antimicrobial effectors, including reactive oxygen species (ROS), and together with epithelia, hemocytes provide the oyster with local defense reactions instead of systemic humoral ones. These reactions are largely based on phagocytosis but also, as recently described, on the extracellular release of antimicrobial histones (ETosis) which is triggered by ROS. Thus, ROS can signal danger and activate cellular responses in the oyster. From the current literature, AMP production/release could serve similar functions. We provide also new lights on the oyster genetic background that underlies a great diversity of AMP sequences but also an extraordinary individual polymorphism of AMP gene expression. We discuss here how this polymorphism could generate new immune functions, new pathogen resistances or support individual adaptation to environmental stresses

csrB Gene Duplication Drives the Evolution of Redundant Regulatory Pathways Controlling Expression of the Major Toxic Secreted Metalloproteases in Vibrio tasmaniensis LGP32

CsrBs are bacterial highly conserved and multiple-copy noncoding small RNAs (sRNAs) that play major roles in cell physiology and virulence. In the Vibrio genus, they are known to be regulated by the two-component system VarSNarA. They modulate the well-characterized quorum sensing pathway controlling virulence and luminescence in Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio harveyi, respectively. Remarkably, Vibrio tasmaniensis LGP32, an oyster pathogen that belongs to the Splendidus Glade, was found to have four copies of csrB, named csrB1-4, compared to two to three copies in other Vibrio species. Here, we show that the extra csrB4 copy results from a csrB3 gene duplication, a characteristic of the Splendidus Glade. Interestingly, csrB genes are regulated in different ways in V. tasmaniensis, with csrB1 expression being independent of the VarSNarA system. We found that a complex regulatory network involving CsrBs, quorum sensing, and the stationary-phase sigma factor sigma S redundantly but differentially controls the production of two secreted metalloproteases, Vsm and PrtV, the former being a major determinant of the V. tasmaniensis extracellular product toxicity. In particular, we identified a novel VarS/VarA-dependent but CsrB-independent pathway that controls positively both Vsm production and PrtV production as well as rpoS expression. Altogether, our data show that a csrB gene duplication event in V. tasmaniensis supported the evolution of the regulatory network controlling the expression of major toxic secreted metalloproteases, thereby increasing redundancy and enabling the integration of additional input signals. IMPORTANCE The conserved CsrB sRNAs are an example of sibling sRNAs, i.e., sRNAs which are present in multiple copies in genomes. This report illustrates how new copies arise through gene duplication events and highlights two evolutionary advantages of having such multiple copies: differential regulation of the multiple copies allows integration of different input signals into the regulatory network of which they are parts, and the high redundancy that they provide confers a strong robustness to the system

Enabling the synthesis of hydrophobic proteins using NCL-labile solubilizing tags: a case study of Crassostrea gigas big defensin 3

International audienc

Spodoptera frugiperda X-tox protein, an immune related defensin rosary, has lost the function ancestral defensins

Background: X-tox proteins are a family of immune-related proteins only found in Lepidoptera and characterized by imperfectly conserved tandem repeats of several defensin-like motifs. Previous phylogenetic analysis of X-tox genes supported the hypothesis that X-tox have evolved from defensins in a lineage-specific gene evolution restricted to Lepidoptera. In this paper, we performed a protein study in which we asked whether X-tox proteins have conserved the antimicrobial functions of their ancestral defensins and have evolved as defensin reservoirs. Methodology/Principal Findings: We followed the outcome of Spod-11-tox, an X-tox protein characterized in Spodoptera frugiperda, in bacteria-challenged larvae using both immunochemistry and antimicrobial assays. Three hours post infection, the Spod-11-tox protein was expressed in 80% of the two main classes of circulating hemocytes (granulocytes and plasmatocytes). Located in secretory granules of hemocytes, Spod-11-tox was never observed in contact with microorganisms entrapped within phagolyzosomes showing that Spod-11-tox is not involved in intracellular pathogen killing. In fact, the Spod-11-tox protein was found to be secreted into the hemolymph of experimentally challenged larvae. In order to determine antimicrobial properties of the Spod-11-tox protein, it was consequently fractionated according to a protocol frequently used for antimicrobial peptide purification. Over the course of purification, the anti-Spod-11-tox immunoreactivity was found to be dissociated from the antimicrobial activity. This indicates that Spod-11-tox is not processed into bioactive defensins in response to a microbial challenge. Conclusions/Significance: Altogether, our results show that X-tox proteins have not evolved as defensin reservoirs and have lost the antimicrobial properties of the ancestral insect defensins. The lepidopteran X-tox protein family will provide a valuable and tractable model to improve our knowledge on the molecular evolution of defensins, a class of innate immune effectors largely distributed over the three eukaryotic kingdom