Policy Implications of Weak Patent Rights

Patents vary substantially in the degree of protection provided against unauthorized imitation. In this chapter we explore a range of work addressing the economic and policy implications of weak patents--patents that have a significant probability of being overturned or being circumvented relatively easily---on innovation and disclosure incentives, antitrust policy, and organizational incentives and entrepreneurial activity. Weak patents cause firms to rely more heavily on secrecy. Thus, the competitive environment is characterized by private information about the extent of the innovator\u27s know-how. In such an environment weak patents increase the likelihood of imitation and infringement, reduce the amount of knowledge publicly disclosed, and potentially reduce the incentives to innovate. The discussion also highlights some implications of weak patents for antitrust policy. Weak patent rights increase the likelihood of patent litigation over commercially valuable patents and raise the specter of anticompetitive settlements. Encouraging the antitrust agencies to refer some patents for re-examination by the patent office would facilitate investigation of potentially anticompetitive IP settlements. Finally, we note some implications for weak property rights in settings involving employee-inventors and employee misuse of confidential information. In the former case an increase in the strength of legal property rights such as patents reduces the employer\u27s ability to prevent employees departing with valuable know-how, in part because a stronger property right increases the value of the employee\u27s start-up option. In the latter case, an increase in legal penalties for breach of confidentiality has the expected effect of decreasing such occurrences

Evolution of Superconductivity in Electron-Doped Cuprates: Magneto-Raman Spectroscopy

The electron-doped cuprates Pr_{2-x}Ce_xCuO_4 and Nd_{2-x}Ce_xCuO_4 have been studied by electronic Raman spectroscopy across the entire region of the superconducting (SC) phase diagram. The SC pairing strength is found to be consistent with a weak-coupling regime except in the under-doped region where we observe an in-gap collective mode at 4.5 k_{B}T_c while the maximum amplitude of the SC gap is ~8 k_{B}T_{c}. In the normal state, doped carriers divide into coherent quasi-particles (QPs) and carriers that remain incoherent. The coherent QPs mainly reside in the vicinity of (\pi/2, \pi/2) regions of the Brillouin zone (BZ). We find that only coherent QPs contribute to the superfluid density in the B_{2g} channel. The persistence of SC coherence peaks in the B_{2g} channel for all dopings implies that superconductivity is mainly governed by interactions between the hole-like coherent QPs in the vicinity of (\pi/2, \pi/2) regions of the BZ. We establish that superconductivity in the electron-doped cuprates occurs primarily due to pairing and condensation of hole-like carriers. We have also studied the excitations across the SC gap by Raman spectroscopy as a function of temperature (T) and magnetic field (H) for several different cerium dopings (x). Effective upper critical field lines H*_{c2}(T, x) at which the superfluid stiffness vanishes and H^{2\Delta}_{c2}(T, x) at which the SC gap amplitude is suppressed by field have been determined; H^{2\Delta}_{c2}(T, x) is larger than H*_{c2}(T, x) for all doping concentrations. The difference between the two quantities suggests the presence of phase fluctuations that increase for x< 0.15. It is found that the magnetic field suppresses the magnitude of the SC gap linearly at surprisingly small fields.Comment: 13 pages, 8 figures; submitted to Phys. Rev.

Regulation of the Human Taurine Transporter by Oxidative Stress in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells Stably Transformed to Overexpress Aldose Reductase

In diabetes, overexpression of aldose reductase (AR) and consequent glucose-induced impairment of antioxidant defense systems may predispose to oxidative stress and the development of diabetic complications, but the mechanisms are poorly understood. Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) functions as an antioxidant, osmolyte, and calcium modulator such that its intracellular depletion could promote cytotoxicity in diabetes. The relationships of oxidative stress and basal AR gene expression to Na+-taurine cotransporter (TT) gene expression, protein abundance, and TT activity were therefore explored in low AR-expressing human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) 47 cells and RPE 47 cells stably transformed to overexpress AR (RPE 75). Changes in TT gene expression were determined using a 4.6-kb TT promoter-luciferase fusion gene. Compared with RPE 47 cells, in high AR-expressing RPE 75 cells, TT promoter activity was decreased by 46%, which was prevented by an AR inhibitor. TT promoter activity increased up to 900% by prooxidant exposure, which was associated with increased TT peptide abundance and taurine transport. However, induction of TT promoter activity by oxidative stress was attenuated in high AR-expressing cells and partially corrected by AR inhibitor. Finally, exposure of RPE 75 cells to high glucose increased oxidative stress, but down-regulated TT expression. These studies demonstrate for the first time that the TT is regulated by oxidative stress and that overexpression of AR and high glucose impair this response. Abnormal expression of AR may therefore impair antioxidant defense, which may determine tissue susceptibility to chronic diabetic complications. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 7, 1530–1542.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/63284/1/ars.2005.7.1530.pd

The implications of an incidental chronic lymphocytic leukaemia in a resection specimen for colorectal adenocarcinoma

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Colorectal cancer and B cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) have a significant incidence, which are increasing with the aging population. Evidence has been presented in the literature to suggest that the synchronous presentation of colorectal cancer and B cell CLL may be more than simply coincidental for these two common malignancies. We report an unusual case of a presumed B cell CLL diagnosed on the basis of histological analysis of lymph nodes recovered from a resection specimen for rectal adenocarcinoma. We considered aetiological factors which may have linked the synchronous diagnosis of the two malignancies and the potential implications for the natural history of the two malignancies on one another.</p> <p>Case presentation</p> <p>A 70-year-old male underwent low anterior resection with total mesorectal excision for a rectal adenocarcinoma. His co-morbid conditions were chronic obstructive airways disease and ischaemic heart disease. General examination revealed no lymphadenopathy. Full blood count, urea and electrolytes and liver function tests were all within normal limits. As well as confirming a pT3 N1 adenocarcinoma, histological analysis showed lymph nodes with an infiltrate of small lymphoid cells. Immunohistochemical studies showed these cells to be in keeping with B cell CLL.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Whilst unable to identify any common aetiological factors in the two malignancies in our patient, immunosuppression and genetic abnormalities have been identified as possible bases for an observed epidemiological association between colorectal cancer and haematological malignancies. Examples such as our case of synchronous diagnosis of two malignancies in a patient are likely to increase with the aging population. The potential affects of one malignancy on the natural history of the other warrants further study. In our case, we considered that slow progression of the B cell CLL may increase the risk of recurrent rectal adenocarcinoma.</p

Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC): a randomized controlled trial to promote physical activity and diminish overweight and obesity in elementary school children

Objective Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) was a three-year cluster randomized controlled trial to promote physical activity and diminish increases in overweight and obesity in elementary school children. Methods Twenty-four elementary schools were cluster randomized to the PAAC intervention or served as control. All children in grades two and three were followed to grades four and five. PAAC promoted 90 minutes/wk of moderate to vigorous intensity physically active academic lessons delivered by classroom teachers. BMI was the primary outcome, daily PA and academic achievement were secondary outcomes. Results The three-year change in BMI for PAAC was 2.0 ± 1.9 and control 1.9 ± 1.9, respectively (NS). However, change in BMI from baseline to three years was significantly influenced by exposure to PAAC. Schools with ≥75 minutes of PAAC/wk showed significantly less increase in BMI at three years compared to schools that had <75 minutes of PAAC (1.8 ± 1.8 vs. 2.4 ± 2.0, p=0.02). PAAC schools had significantly greater changes in daily PA and academic achievement scores. Conclusions The PAAC approach may promote daily PA and academic achievement in elementary school children. Additionally, 75 minutes of PAAC activities may attenuate increases in BMI

Reversal of patterned Co/Pd multilayers with graded magnetic anisotropy

Magnetization reversal and the effect of patterning have been investigated in full-film and dotarrays of Co/Pd multilayers, using the first-order reversal curve and scanning electron microscopywith polarization analysis techniques. The effect of patterning is most pronounced in lowsputtering pressure films, where the size of contiguous domains is larger than the dot size. Uponpatterning, each dot must have its own domain nucleation site and domain propagation is limitedwithin the dot. In graded anisotropy samples, the magnetically soft layer facilitates themagnetization reversal, once the reverse domains have nucleated

Nonmonotonic d_{x^2-y^2} Superconducting Order Parameter in Nd_{2-x}Ce_xCuO_4

Low energy polarized electronic Raman scattering of the electron doped superconductor Nd_1.85Ce_0.15CuO_4 (T_c=22 K) has revealed a nonmonotonic d_{x^2-y^2} superconducting order parameter. It has a maximum gap of 4.4 k_BT_c at Fermi surface intersections with antiferromagnetic Brillouin zone (the ``hot spots'') and a smaller gap of 3.3 k_BT_c at fermionic Brillouin zone boundaries. The gap enhancement in the vicinity of the ``hot spots'' emphasizes role of antiferromagnetic fluctuations and similarity in the origin of superconductivity for electron- and hole-doped cuprates.Comment: 4 pages, 4 figure

Institutions, Human Capital, and Development

In this article, we revisit the relationship among institutions, human capital, and development. We argue that empirical models that treat institutions and human capital as exogenous are misspecified, both because of the usual omitted variable bias problems and because of differential measurement error in these variables, and that this misspecification is at the root of the very large returns of human capital, about four to five times greater than that implied by micro (Mincerian) estimates, found in the previous literature. Using cross-country and cross-regional regressions, we show that when we focus on historically determined differences in human capital and control for the effect of institutions, the impact of institutions on long-run development is robust, whereas the estimates of the effect of human capital are much diminished and become consistent with micro estimates. Using historical and cross-country regression evidence, we also show that there is no support for the view that differences in the human capital endowments of early European colonists have been a major factor in the subsequent institutional development of former colonies.Comisión Nacional de Investigación Ciencia y Tecnología (Chile) (CONICYT/Programa de Investigación Asociativa (project SOC1102))United States. Army Research Office (ARO MURI W911NF-12-1-0509

Gaze Strategy in the Free Flying Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata)

Fast moving animals depend on cues derived from the optic flow on their retina. Optic flow from translational locomotion includes information about the three-dimensional composition of the environment, while optic flow experienced during a rotational self motion does not. Thus, a saccadic gaze strategy that segregates rotations from translational movements during locomotion will facilitate extraction of spatial information from the visual input. We analysed whether birds use such a strategy by highspeed video recording zebra finches from two directions during an obstacle avoidance task. Each frame of the recording was examined to derive position and orientation of the beak in three-dimensional space. The data show that in all flights the head orientation was shifted in a saccadic fashion and was kept straight between saccades. Therefore, birds use a gaze strategy that actively stabilizes their gaze during translation to simplify optic flow based navigation. This is the first evidence of birds actively optimizing optic flow during flight

Evaluation of polygenic risk scores for breast and ovarian cancer risk prediction in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers

Background: Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified 94 common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with breast cancer (BC) risk and 18 associated with ovarian cancer (OC) risk. Several of these are also associated with risk of BC or OC for women who carry a pathogenic mutation in the high-risk BC and OC genes BRCA1 or BRCA2. The combined effects of these variants on BC or OC risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers have not yet been assessed while their clinical management could benefit from improved personalized risk estimates. Methods: We constructed polygenic risk scores (PRS) using BC and OC susceptibility SNPs identified through population-based GWAS: for BC (overall, estrogen receptor [ER]-positive, and ER-negative) and for OC. Using data from 15 252 female BRCA1 and 8211 BRCA2 carriers, the association of each PRS with BC or OC risk was evaluated using a weighted cohort approach, with time to diagnosis as the outcome and estimation of the hazard ratios (HRs) per standard deviation increase in the PRS. Results: The PRS for ER-negative BC displayed the strongest association with BC risk in BRCA1 carriers (HR = 1.27, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.23 to 1.31, P = 8.2 x 10(53)). In BRCA2 carriers, the strongest association with BC risk was seen for the overall BC PRS (HR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.17 to 1.28, P = 7.2 x 10(-20)). The OC PRS was strongly associated with OC risk for both BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers. These translate to differences in absolute risks (more than 10% in each case) between the top and bottom deciles of the PRS distribution; for example, the OC risk was 6% by age 80 years for BRCA2 carriers at the 10th percentile of the OC PRS compared with 19% risk for those at the 90th percentile of PRS. Conclusions: BC and OC PRS are predictive of cancer risk in BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers. Incorporation of the PRS into risk prediction models has promise to better inform decisions on cancer risk management