Deforestation, wood famine and environmental degradation in highland ecosystems of Ethiopia: urgent need for actions

One of the major challenges facing Ethiopia in its strive for development is environmental degradation, which is manifested in the form of land and water resources degradation as well as loss of biodiversity. Land degradation, in turn, is expressed in terms of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility. Deforestation/devegetation has been held as one of the major factors contributing to land degradation through exposing the soil for various agents of erosion. Ethiopia, with high-intensity rainstorms and extensive steep slopes, is highly susceptible to soil erosion, especially in the highlands. The organic content of soils is often low due to the widespread use of dung and crop residues for energy. Land degradation exerts heavy impacts on agricultural productivity and production. For instance, in 1990 alone, reduced soil depth, caused by erosion, resulted in a loss in grain production of 57,000 (at 3.5 mm soil loss) - 128,000 tons (at 8 mm soil depth). It has been estimated that the grain production lost due to land degradation in 1990 would have been sufficient to feed more than four million people. The availability of land suitable for agriculture is shrinking. At the same time, the amount of land required to feed the growing population is steadily increasing. With agricultural productivity increases lagging behind population growth rates, the gap between the availability and the demand for agricultural land continues to grow. This results in severe land-use conflicts between crop farming, animal grazing and forestry. National high forests and plantations are encroached upon and cleared for cultivation or grazing by local people. State and community forest interests collide with local grazing interests on hillside land, and grazing and fuelwood / charcoal interests confront each other in the woodlands and bushlands. Forestry can play a role in reducing land pressure and land degradation. It is important to note, however, that forestry alone will not be able to solve the problem. Even if the management of existing forest resources is improved and new trees and forests are established, this may well prove futile if the need for crop and grazing land continues to grow due to high population growth rates. Using the land for forestry to improve soil fertility or to rehabilitate and conserve the environment will be viewed as secondary to using the land for cropping and grazing to meet immediate needs of survival. Hence, attempts to alleviate land degradation are critically dependent on efforts to deal with the three main underlying causes of land degradation, namely population growth, low agricultural productivity and high dependence on fuelwood, dung and crop residue as sources of household energy. Considering the magnitude of the land 2 degradation problem, the conservation programs implemented so far are inadequate. The policy, institutional, planning and technical constraints that have been considered responsible for the inadequacy of past conservation efforts are presented. Any future initiatives aiming at overcoming the escalating land degradation problem in Ethiopia should first address these constraints realistically. There are no universal formulae or solutions to the constraints that can work across the board. Solutions should be locality specific and closely tied up with the socio-economic setup of the communities. In this regard, forestry can play a significant role in either preventing or arresting land degradation by avoiding or reducing soil erosion through reduced surface runoff and maintenance of organic matter and soil fertility. It can help in not only addressing off-farm and on-farm dimensions of soil erosion but also in maintaining the fertility of the soil thereby contributing to the alleviation of land degradation and the destruction of natural resources. The various means by which forestry can be used to address problems of land degradation are discussed as outlined in the Ethiopian Forestry Action Program

Review Article: Frankincense and myrrh resources of Ethiopia: I distribution, production, opportunities for dryland development and research needs

Boswellia and Commiphora species are economically and ecologically important plant species found mainly in the horn of Africa particularly in Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya. They are the source of aromatic gum resins, frankincense and myrrh. Frankincense and myrrh have been valued for their sacred and ceremonial uses as well as in medicinal contexts since several millennia. Still today, they are widely used as raw materials in several industries such as pharmacology, food, beverage, flavouring, liqueurs, cosmetics, detergents, creams and perfumery, paints, adhesive and dye manufacturing. Ethiopia is one of tropical African countries with large potentials of frankincense and myrrh resources and has been known as one of the major producers. Nevertheless, little efforts have been made at national level to explore the vegetation resources that provide these valuable products. Consequently, little is written and known about their distribution, potential production, development opportunities and other relevant issues. This paper presents a review that covers several aspects of these valuable resources including the economic and ecological opportunities they may render for accelerated development and ecological conservation in the vast dry lands of the country. Key words/phrases: Boswellia, Commiphora, ecological opportunity, economic opportunity, oleo-gum resins, olibanum SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci Vol.26(1) 2003: 63-7

Frankincense and myrrh resources of Ethiopia: II. Medicinal and industrial uses

Oleo-gum resins such as frankincense and myrrh are some of the economically and culturally valuable products obtained from trees and shrubs of the genera Boswellia and Commiphora, respectively. They are important natural plant products used in several industries that include pharmacology, food, flavour, liqueur and beverage, cosmetics, perfumery and others. Moreover, frankincense and myrrh have several local applications in medicinal, hygienic, and insecticide areas that could be developed through research. They are widely used in traditional medicines of several countries for treatments of a wide variety of ailments from embalming to cancer, leprosy, bronchitis, diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, mouth ulcers, inflammatory complaints, viral hepatitis, female disorders, infections/wounds, coughs, tumour, and others. Although Ethiopia is one of the few countries that are endowed with large frankincense and myrrh resources, little proper exploitation of these resources has been made so far. In this paper a review is presented on pharmacological and industrial applications of these valuable resources. The information is expected to prompt the enormous economic opportunity that these resources could provide both at national and local levels. Concurrently, this opportunity, if properly exploited, will contribute significantly towards the conservation and management of the vegetation resources that yield frankincense and myrrh as well as their ecosystems. Key words/phrases: Boswellia, Commiphora, folk medicines, industrial use, pharmacology SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science Vol.26(2) 2003: 161-17

Restoration of native forest flora in the degraded highlands of Ethiopia: Constraints and opportunities

Wide spread deforestation and subsequent degradation is severely threatening the natural forest resources in Ethiopia. What is imperatively and urgently needed today is ecological restoration. In order for ecological restoration to be successful and cost effective, critical analyses of possible constraints and available opportunities are crucial. Such Knowledge increases our understandings of ecosystem responses and a more reasonable prediction of where and why restoration efforts will be difficult or possible. These understandings will also improve the decision-support systems for the kind of restoration strategies or tools to apply and what kind of management techniques to follow. Available literature indicated that scarcity or complete absence of viable soil seed banks under natural environments and in environments affected by humans, such as abandoned farmlands, poor seed rain/dispersal and site impoverishment would be severe limitations to ecological restoration in the country. On the other hand, land abandonment due to marginalization followed by the establishment of plantation forests as foster crops are opportunities that could be utilized for rapid and productive restoration of the vast degraded ecosystems in the country. Nevertheless, successful utilities of these management options certainly demand conservation of the remnant natural forests to serve as propagule donors. Hence, conservation of the scattered remnant forests in the country is the major prerequisite for successful future restoration ventures. Key words/phrases: Land degradation, seedling bank, seed rain, soil seed bank, tree plantations SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci. Vol.27(1) 2004: 75-9

Impact of Wine Tapping on the Population Structure and Regeneration of Hyphaene petersiana Klotzsch ex Mart. in Northern Botswana

Palms are tapped around the world as sources of sugars for fermentation. A comparison of tapped and untapped  populations of Hyphaene petersiana Klotsch ex Mart. palm trees was conducted in northern Botswana. The objectives of the study were to: determine the densities, dominances, population structures and regeneration of natural palm stands. Social objectives of the study included assessment of preferred tree sizes for wine tapping, investigation of methods, frequency and processes involved in the wine tapping, and marketing of the tapped palm wine. The results revealed a significant difference in the mean total density of the species at the two study sites (Shorobe with 2,275 individuals/ha and Tubu with 1,402 individuals/ha). Total seed densities at Tubu (6,822/ha) and Shorobe (62/ha) were dramatically different. Mean total dominance (basal area) was significantly higher at Tubu than Shorobe where wine tapping is common. The species exhibited a pattern indicative of hampered population structures/regeneration at both sites. In Shorobe, the hampered regeneration can be attributed mainly to wine tapping associated with cutting down the trees. Palm wine tappers used destructive methods such as burning, felling, pruning and trimming the stem. The results revealed that the methods of wine tapping employed negatively impacted the population structure

Spatial and Temporal Land Cover Changes in the Simen Mountains National Park, a World Heritage Site in Northwestern Ethiopia

The trend of land cover (LC) and land cover change (LCC), both in time and space, was investigated at the Simen Mountains National Park (SMNP), a World Heritage Site located in northern Ethiopia, between 1984 and 2003 using Geographical Information System (GIS) and remote sensing (RS). The objective of the study was to generate spatially and temporally quantified information on land cover dynamics, providing the basis for policy/decision makers and resource managers to facilitate biodiversity conservation, including wild animals. Two satellite images (Landsat TM of 1984 and Landsat ETM+ of 2003) were acquired and supervised classification was used to categorize LC types. Ground Control Points were obtained in field condition for georeferencing and accuracy assessment. The results showed an increase in the areas of pure forest (Erica species dominated) and shrubland but a decrease in the area of agricultural land over the 20 years. The overall accuracy and the Kappa value of classification results were 88 and 85%, respectively. The spatial setting of the LC classes was heterogeneous and resulted from the biophysical nature of SMNP and anthropogenic activities. Further studies are suggested to evaluate the existing LC and LCC in connection with wildlife habitat, conservation and management of SMNP

Seed characteristics and the influence of scarification treatments on the germination of Pterocarpus angolensis in Botswana

Pterocarpus angolensis, a vital timber tree species of the Miombo and other woodlands, is native to eastern and southern Africa. Gemination studies were carried out at the Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources to ascertain the seeds’ features and find the most effective scarification treatments that yield the fastest, highest, and most consistent germination of P. angolensis. Ten seed pretreatments were included in the completely randomized design of the experiments. These treatments included nicking, immersion in boiling water for one, three, and five minutes, concentrated sulphuric acid for fifteen, thirty, forty-five, and sixty minutes, and hot water left to cool overnight. Treated seeds were allowed to germinate at room temperature (25 °C) for 30 days. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the raw data. The findings demonstrated that nicking and sulfuric acid treatments significantly increased seed germination (p=0.0001) compared to untreated seeds. The germination rate of the seeds emersed in boiling water for one, three, and five minutes was noticeably lower than that of untreated seeds. Because of their tough seed coat, P. angolensis seeds must be pretreated before sown. This study found that nicking and sulphuric acid treatment were the best techniques for seed germination of P. Angolensis

Epiphytic Recruitment of Schefflera abyssinica (A. Rich) Harms. and the Rle of Microsites in Affecting Tree Community Structure in Remnant Forests in Northwest Ethiopia

Epiphytic recruitment of trees on trees is a form of facilitation allowing trees to escape herbivory and abiotic stress. In terms of survival and reaching the upper canopy sooner, this form of recruitment may be more successful than recruitment from the ground. Hence epiphytic recruitment may play a major role in affecting plant community structure and vegetation dynamics. To this effect, we studied epiphytic Schefflera abyssinica (A. Rich) Harms. density and characteristics in a church forest and the surrounding degraded matrix in northwest Ethiopia using different sampling techniques. The role of suitable microsites was evaluated as a secondary objective. The result showed that no seedling of Schefflera abyssinica was found on the ground. The average density of epiphytic Schefflera abyssinica was much higher than already standing mature trees. Schefflera abyssinica rejuvenates majorly by forming canopy seedling bank on six different kinds of tree species. Rot holes, branch forks and moss layer on the host tree were important microsites for successful establishment. Our result substantiates earlier reports that Schefflera abyssinica does not form persistent soil seed bank. The result also suggests that the spatial configuration of trees in the forest and in the landscape will remain largely the same; however, the dominant species will change as the epiphyte will gradually outcompete the host. Dominance of only one tree species might have a negative effect on the tree community structure of the forest and the surrounding agro ecosystem

Application and Use of Presowing Treatment Methods to Improve Germination of Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso

A germination experiment of Vachellia karroo seeds was conducted at the Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences laboratory, from September to October 2018. Seeds were collected along the Segoditshane River in Gaborone to investigate the effect of different pre-sowing treatment methods on their germination. The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with five treatments (control, mechanical scarification, boiling water, hot water and concentrated sulphuric acid (98.8%). Boiling water (30, 60, 180 and 300 seconds) and concentrated sulphuric acid (15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes) had four levels of exposure time. The highest significant (p < 0.01) cumulative germination percentages were recorded in seeds subjected to sulphuric acid for 45 and 60 minutes, mechanical scarification (shortest germination mean time of 2.0-2.3) and boiling water at 30 and 60 seconds (moderate germination mean time of 5-5.9) whereas, the control treatment had the least cumulative germination percentage of 2%. As expected, the same trend was revealed for germination index. The seeds possess seed coat imposed dormancy, which requires sowing treatments. The best treatments for releasing dormancy in V. karroo were sulphuric acid and mechanical scarification and because of the risks associated with the use of sulphuric acid, the researchers recommend mechanical scarification as the suitable treatment method in tree nurseries.Keywords: Seed dormancy, Germination mean time, Germination index, Pre-sowing treatment, Germination percentage, Germination rate, Tree nursery

Economic Contribution of Gum and Resin Resources to Household Livelihoods in Selected Regions and the National Economy of Ethiopia

Ethiopia has one of the largest dry forest and woodland resource bases in the Horn of Africa, predominated by diverse Acacia, Boswellia, Commiphora, and Sterculia species, with an estimated annual production potential of over 300,000 tonnes of commercial gums and resins. However, until recently, less than 1% of this potential has been tapped and traded while the resource bases are degrading fast. Shortage of locality-specific case studies typifying the state of gum and resin production and marketing systems and nationwide socio-economic significance of the resources has delayed development of value-added commercialization of the commodities and integrated management of the resource bases. A study aimed at exploring the value chain of traded gums and resins and their contribution to rural livelihood and national economy was conducted in 11 purposively selected localities in five National Regional States within the major gum-belts in Ethiopia. Two major cities, central for product processing and marketing, were also assessed. A questionnaire survey was administered to 135 randomly selected households, and key stakeholder interviews, group discussions, and field observations were carried out following the value chain (from producers to exporters). Results showed that one or more of the seven gums and resins (frankincense, myrrh, opopanax, hagar, gum arabic, gum talha, and gum gumero) were produced and traded at the studied districts. While frankincense marketing dominated the northern part, gum arabic, myrrh, and opopanax are most popular in the south and southeastern part of the country. About 93% of the interviewed households engaged in collecting, marketing, or both activities. Gums and resins contributed up to 14% of the average annual cash income of the households. However, a significant difference (P < 0.001) was found in the amount collected and income generated per household and locality. Strong correlation was observed between cash income from gums and resins and off-farm activities (R = 0.74) and other types of non-timber forest products like honey (R = 0.72, α = 0.01). However, weak correlation was observed between incomes from gums and resins and crop and livestock production. Despite the observed inefficient value chain, the gum and resin resources have considerable contributions to the national economy. For instance, the annual average revenue from three districts in Tigray National Regional State was USD 882,000 in 2010. Between 2002 and 2010, about 2,306 tonnes of different gums and resins were traded and average revenue of USD 3,220,542 was obtained in one district in the same region. At the national level, between 1997 and 2010 about 6,174 tonnes of gum arabic and about 33,865 tonnes of other gums and resins were exported, and more than USD 72 million were generated. Responding to what sort of institutional arrangement governs the value chain and use of gums and resins resources at the present situations, about 41% of the respondents asserted customary and national legal arrangements, while 56% mentioned alternative systems as means of conflict resolution. Key policy and development interventions that could enhance the socio-economic importance of the gum and resin value chain at the local and national levels, while also increasing responsibility and commitment towards long-term management of the resource bases, have been recommended