La relation entre le stress vécu par les bébés et la suppression neuronale mesurée en EEG

L’apprentissage et la mémoire sont sensibles aux effets du stress, et il a été démontré que chez l’adulte la relation entre le stress et l’apprentissage suit une courbe en « U » inversé. Cependant, il y a peu de données dans la littérature démontrant l’existence d’une telle relation chez les nourrissons. Dans ce mémoire, nous utilisons le phénomène de suppression neuronale et le cortisol salivaire recueilli en situation de stress afin de mesurer la relation entre le stress et l’apprentissage chez le nourrisson. Nous posons l’hypothèse que le stress affectera la suppression neuronale en suivant aussi une relation en « U » inversé. Nous avons mesuré en électroencéphalographie la réponse cérébrale pendant une tâche d’apprentissage et recueillis des échantillons de salive durant l’expérimentation chez 35 bébés (18 mâles) âgés entre 6 et 26 mois. Nous avons utilisé un modèle linéaire mixte afin de mesurer l’effet du stress sur l’apprentissage en incluant le niveau de cortisol salivaire, l’âge et le sexe comme prédicteurs. Les résultats démontrent que chez les jeunes enfants, un niveau de stress plus élevé n’est pas associé à une diminution de la réponse de suppression neuronale mais est plutôt lié à une réponse cérébrale plus élevée au premier stimulus de chaque essai. Compte tenu de ces résultats, le stress peut être considéré comme de la vigilance, expliquant ainsi cet effet du stress sur la réponse d’apprentissage chez le nourrisson. Puisque nous en savons peu sur le stress et l’apprentissage chez les jeunes enfants et que l’enfance est une période critique du développement, les futures recherches devraient continuer d’étudier l’influence du stress sur les mécanismes d’apprentissage et de la mémoire.The over activation of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis in stress situations can influence learning and memory. Researchers have underlined an inverted-U shape relationship between stress level, and learning and memory, in adults. Whether this model fits learning performances in infants is not well documented. In this study, we use the repetition suppression phenomenon and salivary cortisol collected during a stressful situation to measure the relationship between stress and learning in infants. We hypothesized that the effect of stress on repetition suppression will also follow an inverted-U shape relationship. We measured brain activity using EEG during a repetition-based learning task and saliva samples were collected during the experiment in 35 infants (18 males) aged between 6 and 26 months. The effect of stress level on learning was modeled with a linear mixed model, using cortisol, age and sex as predictors. Results indicate that in healthy infants, higher stress level is not associated with poorer repetition suppression response but is rather linked to an increased response on the first stimulus of each trial. Considering these results, stress could be interpreted as vigilance, thus explaining this effect of stress on learning response in infants. Since little is known about stress and learning in infants and considering that early childhood is a critical period of development, future studies should keep investigating the influence of stress on learning and memory mechanisms

Les processus d'apprentissage fondamentaux sont-ils prédicteurs du neurodéveloppement?

Thèse de doctorat présenté en vue de l'obtention du doctorat en psychologie - recherche intervention, option neuropsychologie clinique (Ph.D)L’enfance représente une période charnière dans le développement du cerveau en raison des multiples changements qui s’y opèrent. En considérant que c’est au cours des deux premières années de vie que le cerveau est le plus sensible aux interventions, nous devrions chercher à intervenir plus tôt dans le développement des enfants. Pour ce faire, il est nécessaire d’identifier des biomarqueurs, c’est-à-dire des mesures objectives permettant d’évaluer les processus biologiques normaux et pathologiques du cerveau, afin d’éventuellement être en mesure de reconnaitre, en bas âge, les enfants à risque de connaître une perturbation de leur développement cognitif. L’électroencéphalographie (EEG), et plus particulièrement les réponses cérébrales d’apprentissage, constituent des avenues intéressantes pour l’identification de biomarqueurs étant donné leur rôle clé dans le développement perceptuel et cognitif des enfants. De plus, les paramètres EEG du développement typique du cerveau sont relativement bien compris, ce qui fournit une base intéressante pour étudier le développement atypique. Le premier article de cette thèse avait pour objectif de déterminer la courbe développementale de deux types de réponses cérébrales d’apprentissage, soit les réponses cérébrales à la répétition ainsi que la détection du changement, afin de caractériser leur développement typique. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé une tâche de type oddball en EEG chez 43 enfants contrôles suivis à trois reprises entre l’âge de 3 mois et l’âge de 4 ans. Les résultats ont permis de démontrer un patron de réponse en forme de U semblable à travers les âges, c’est-à-dire une réponse de suppression neuronale entre la première et la deuxième présentation du stimulus suivi d’une réponse de détection du changement au stimulus déviant. Ceci révèle un développement relativement stable des réponses cérébrales chez les sujets contrôles. Dans le second article, le premier objectif était de déterminer la valeur prédictive de ces réponses cérébrales d’apprentissage, mesurées dans les deux premières années de vie, en les mettant en relation avec le fonctionnement intellectuel et adaptatif à l’âge de 4 ans, chez les mêmes 43 enfants contrôles et un groupe composé de 20 enfants macrocéphales. Les résultats révèlent que lorsque mesurée lors de la première année de vie, un patron de réponses cérébrales en forme de U est lié positivement avec le fonctionnement adaptatif à 4 ans. Un deuxième objectif était de déterminer dans quelle mesure la croissance cérébrale lors de la première année de vie est un facteur de variabilité interindividuelle qui influence les réponses cérébrales d’apprentissage entre 3 mois et 2 ans. Un impact négatif d’une croissance cérébrale accrue sur les réponses cérébrales à la répétition et de détection du changement a été observé, mais uniquement dans la période 0-12 mois. Il semble donc que les réponses cérébrales d’apprentissage auraient le potentiel de servir de biomarqueur dès la première année de vie puisqu’elles sont liées au fonctionnement adaptatif et sont sensibles au rythme de croissance du cerveau. Cette thèse contribue à améliorer nos connaissances sur les réponses cérébrales d’apprentissage, notamment en caractérisant leur courbe développementale durant l’enfance. Nous avons également contribué à l’avancement de la recherche sur les biomarqueurs EEG en mesurant le pouvoir prédictif de ces réponses sur le fonctionnement adaptatif des enfants d’âge préscolaire ainsi que leur sensibilité aux différences interindividuelles telles que la croissance cérébrale.Childhood is a pivotal period in the brain’s development due to the many changes it undergoes. Considering that the brain is the most susceptible to interventions during the first two years of life, we should aim to intervene sooner in infant’s development. Therefore, there is a need to establish biomarkers, i.e., a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated, and that can serve as an indication of normal or pathogenic biological processes, that would allow for earlier diagnosis. Electroencephalography (EEG), and more specifically cerebral learning responses, are interesting prospects for biomarker identification given their key role in children's perceptual and cognitive development. Moreover, EEG typical patterns of brain development are well established, then allowing the study of atypical brain development. The aim of the first article in this thesis was to investigate the developmental course of two types of cerebral learning responses, i.e., repetition and change detection responses. To do so, we used an EEG oddball task in 43 healthy children who were tested three times from the age of 3 months to 4 years. It allowed us to characterize the typical development of these two cerebral responses and establish response patterns. The results showed a similar U-shaped response pattern in infants and children of all ages, i.e., a repetition suppression response between the first and second stimulus presentation followed by a change detection response to the deviant stimulus. This suggests a relatively stable developmental course of repetition and change detection responses in healthy subjects. In the second article, the first objective was to determine the predictive value of these brain learning responses, measured during the two first years of life, on intellectual and adaptive functioning at age 4, in the same 43 healthy children and a group of 20 macrocephalic children. The results reveal that when measured in the first year of life, a U-shaped brain responses pattern is positively related to adaptive functioning at age 4. A second objective was to assess whether brain growth during the first year of life is a factor of interindividual variability that influences cerebral learning responses between 3 months and 2 years of age. A negative impact of increased brain growth on repetition and change detection responses was observed, but only in the 0–12-month period. Thus, it appears that cerebral learning responses may have the potential to be biomarkers in the first year of life since they are associated with adaptive functioning and are sensitive to the brain growth rate. This thesis contributes to improving our knowledge of cerebral learning responses, notably by characterizing their developmental course during childhood. We also contributed to the advancement of research on EEG biomarkers by measuring the predictive power of these responses on preschoolers’ adaptive functioning as well as their sensitivity to interindividual differences such as brain growth

Prolonged and unprolonged complex febrile seizures differently affect frontal theta brain activity

Objective: Studies have identified persistent cognitive and functional deficits, which could be linked to each other, in children with complex febrile seizures (FS). Our aim was to investigate differences in brain activity in children with a history of complex FS, through a study paradigm associated with the development of learning capacities and using electroencephalographic (EEG) signal. To further increase our understanding of these differences, complex FS were studied separately depending on their type. Method: EEG was recorded in 43 children with past FS. Brain activity associated with auditory learning was investigated using a habituation paradigm, in which repetition suppression (RS) is typically found following stimulus repetition. Auditory stimuli were repeated three times, and each presentation were analysed separately in the time-frequency (TF) domain. A mixedanalysis of variance was used to assess differences in spectral power between stimulus repetition and FS type (simple vs complex prolonged; CP vs complex unprolonged; CUP). Results: Repetition effects were found in the 3-6 Hz during 150-600ms time window after stimulus onset at frontal sites (F(2, 40)=5.645, p=0.007, η2p=0.220). Moreover, an interaction effect between stimulus repetition and FS type (F(4, 80)=2.607, p=0.042, η2p=0.115) was found. Children with CP FS showed greater increase in spectral power in response to the first stimulus presentation, while children with CUP FS failed to show a RS pattern. Significance: Our results show distinct abnormalities in brain activity to a habituation paradigm. We argue that these changes suggest children with CP FS may be hyperexcitable, while children with CUP FS show impaired habituation processes. Still, these differences may be associated with other clinical features linked to complex FS as well. Hence, the role of these differences in complex FS incidence and prognosis should be the subject of future studies

Impact of brain overgrowth on sensorial learning processing during the first year of life

Macrocephaly is present in about 2–5% of the general population. It can be found as an isolated benign trait or as part of a syndromic condition. Brain overgrowth has been associated with neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism during the first year of life, however, evidence remains inconclusive. Furthermore, most of the studies have involved pathological or high-risk populations, but little is known about the effects of brain overgrowth on neurodevelopment in otherwise neurotypical infants. We investigated the impact of brain overgrowth on basic perceptual learning processes (repetition effects and change detection response) during the first year of life. We recorded high density electroencephalograms (EEG) in 116 full-term healthy infants aged between 3 and 11 months, 35 macrocephalic (14 girls) and 81 normocephalic (39 girls) classified according to the WHO head circumference norms. We used an adapted oddball paradigm, time-frequency analyses, and auditory event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to investigate differences between groups. We show that brain overgrowth has a significant impact on repetition effects and change detection response in the 10–20 Hz frequency band, and in N450 latency, suggesting that these correlates of sensorial learning processes are sensitive to brain overgrowth during the first year of life

Effects of eight neuropsychiatric copy number variants on human brain structure

Many copy number variants (CNVs) confer risk for the same range of neurodevelopmental symptoms and psychiatric conditions including autism and schizophrenia. Yet, to date neuroimaging studies have typically been carried out one mutation at a time, showing that CNVs have large effects on brain anatomy. Here, we aimed to characterize and quantify the distinct brain morphometry effects and latent dimensions across 8 neuropsychiatric CNVs. We analyzed T1-weighted MRI data from clinically and non-clinically ascertained CNV carriers (deletion/duplication) at the 1q21.1 (n = 39/28), 16p11.2 (n = 87/78), 22q11.2 (n = 75/30), and 15q11.2 (n = 72/76) loci as well as 1296 non-carriers (controls). Case-control contrasts of all examined genomic loci demonstrated effects on brain anatomy, with deletions and duplications showing mirror effects at the global and regional levels. Although CNVs mainly showed distinct brain patterns, principal component analysis (PCA) loaded subsets of CNVs on two latent brain dimensions, which explained 32 and 29% of the variance of the 8 Cohen’s d maps. The cingulate gyrus, insula, supplementary motor cortex, and cerebellum were identified by PCA and multi-view pattern learning as top regions contributing to latent dimension shared across subsets of CNVs. The large proportion of distinct CNV effects on brain morphology may explain the small neuroimaging effect sizes reported in polygenic psychiatric conditions. Nevertheless, latent gene brain morphology dimensions will help subgroup the rapidly expanding landscape of neuropsychiatric variants and dissect the heterogeneity of idiopathic conditions

EEG repetition and change detection responses in infancy predict adaptive functioning in preschool age: a longitudinal study

Abstract Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are mostly diagnosed around the age of 4–5 years, which is too late considering that the brain is most susceptive to interventions during the first two years of life. Currently, diagnosis of NDDs is based on observed behaviors and symptoms, but identification of objective biomarkers would allow for earlier screening. In this longitudinal study, we investigated the relationship between repetition and change detection responses measured using an EEG oddball task during the first year of life and at two years of age, and cognitive abilities and adaptive functioning during preschool years (4 years old). Identification of early biomarkers is challenging given that there is a lot of variability in developmental courses among young infants. Therefore, the second aim of this study is to assess whether brain growth is a factor of interindividual variability that influences repetition and change detection responses. To obtain variability in brain growth beyond the normative range, infants with macrocephaly were included in our sample. Thus, 43 normocephalic children and 20 macrocephalic children were tested. Cognitive abilities at preschool age were assessed with the WPPSI-IV and adaptive functioning was measured with the ABAS-II. Time–frequency analyses were conducted on the EEG data. Results indicated that repetition and change detection responses in the first year of life predict adaptive functioning at 4 years of age, independently of head circumference. Moreover, our findings suggested that brain growth explains variability in neural responses mostly in the first years of life, so that macrocephalic children did not display repetition suppression responses, while normocephalic children did. This longitudinal study demonstrates that the first year of life is an important period for the early screening of children at risk of developing NDDs

Febrile seizures and increased stress sensitivity in children : how it relates to seizure characteristics

BACKGROUND: Studies suggest that the relationship between seizures and stress starts early in life. However, evidence of long-term altered stress reactivity following early-life seizures is lacking. Our objectives were to assess alterations in stress hormone reactivity in children with past febrile seizures (FS) and investigate how these alterations relate to clinical characteristics. METHOD: This case-control study compared a convenience sample of children with simple FS (n = 24), complex FS (n = 18), and matched healthy controls (n = 42). Stress was induced by electrode placement for an electroencephalography (EEG) exam. Salivary cortisol to stress, using three samples collected before and after the stressor, was compared between groups and sex. The relationship between stress reactivity and clinical characteristics (i.e., FS duration, age at first FS, time since the last FS) was investigated. RESULTS: Cortisol reactivity to stress was significantly different depending on study groups, F(1, 78) = 6.415, p = 0.003, η2p = 0.141, but not sex nor was there a significant interaction between group and sex (p ≥ 0.581). Participants with simple FS showed higher cortisol reactivity to stress (M = 14.936, Standard deviation (SD) = 26.852) compared with those with complex FS (M = -4.663, SD = 18.649, p = 0.015) and controls (M = -3.817, SD = 18.907, p = 0.003). There was no significant difference between participants with complex FS and controls (p > 0.999). Stress reactivity was not linked to clinical characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Children with past simple FS showed greater changes in salivary cortisol following stress, suggesting enhanced stress sensitivity. As similar results were not found in a population with complex FS, our study shows that stress alterations are not caused by seizure severity. Future studies are needed to investigate whether stress sensitivity may be premorbid to simple FS and may contribute to simple FS incidence

Impact of brain overgrowth on sensorial learning processing during the first year of life

Macrocephaly is present in about 2–5% of the general population. It can be found as an isolated benign trait or as part of a syndromic condition. Brain overgrowth has been associated with neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism during the first year of life, however, evidence remains inconclusive. Furthermore, most of the studies have involved pathological or high-risk populations, but little is known about the effects of brain overgrowth on neurodevelopment in otherwise neurotypical infants. We investigated the impact of brain overgrowth on basic perceptual learning processes (repetition effects and change detection response) during the first year of life. We recorded high density electroencephalograms (EEG) in 116 full-term healthy infants aged between 3 and 11 months, 35 macrocephalic (14 girls) and 81 normocephalic (39 girls) classified according to the WHO head circumference norms. We used an adapted oddball paradigm, time-frequency analyses, and auditory event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to investigate differences between groups. We show that brain overgrowth has a significant impact on repetition effects and change detection response in the 10–20 Hz frequency band, and in N450 latency, suggesting that these correlates of sensorial learning processes are sensitive to brain overgrowth during the first year of life

Effects of eight neuropsychiatric copy number variants on human brain structure.

Many copy number variants (CNVs) confer risk for the same range of neurodevelopmental symptoms and psychiatric conditions including autism and schizophrenia. Yet, to date neuroimaging studies have typically been carried out one mutation at a time, showing that CNVs have large effects on brain anatomy. Here, we aimed to characterize and quantify the distinct brain morphometry effects and latent dimensions across 8 neuropsychiatric CNVs. We analyzed T1-weighted MRI data from clinically and non-clinically ascertained CNV carriers (deletion/duplication) at the 1q21.1 (n = 39/28), 16p11.2 (n = 87/78), 22q11.2 (n = 75/30), and 15q11.2 (n = 72/76) loci as well as 1296 non-carriers (controls). Case-control contrasts of all examined genomic loci demonstrated effects on brain anatomy, with deletions and duplications showing mirror effects at the global and regional levels. Although CNVs mainly showed distinct brain patterns, principal component analysis (PCA) loaded subsets of CNVs on two latent brain dimensions, which explained 32 and 29% of the variance of the 8 Cohen's d maps. The cingulate gyrus, insula, supplementary motor cortex, and cerebellum were identified by PCA and multi-view pattern learning as top regions contributing to latent dimension shared across subsets of CNVs. The large proportion of distinct CNV effects on brain morphology may explain the small neuroimaging effect sizes reported in polygenic psychiatric conditions. Nevertheless, latent gene brain morphology dimensions will help subgroup the rapidly expanding landscape of neuropsychiatric variants and dissect the heterogeneity of idiopathic conditions