A review of the potential for rare earth element resources from European red muds: examples from Seydişehir, Turkey and Parnassus-Giona, Greece

ArticleRare earth elements (REE) are viewed as ‘critical metals’ due to a complex array of production and political issues, most notably a near monopoly in supply from China. Red mud, the waste product of the Bayer process that produces alumina from bauxite, represents a potential secondary resource of REE. Karst-bauxite deposits represent the ideal source material for REE-enriched red mud as the conditions during formation of the bauxite allow for the retention of REE. The REE pass through the Bayer Process and are concentrated in the waste material. Millions of tonnes of red mud are currently stockpiled in onshore storage facilities across Europe, representing a potential REE resource. Red mud from two case study sites, one in Greece and the other in Turkey, has been found to contain an average of approximately 1 000 ppm total REE, with an enrichment of light over heavy REE. Although this is relatively low grade when compared with typical primary REE deposits (Mountain Pass and Mount Weld up to 80 000 ppm), it is of interest because of the large volumes available, the cost benefits of reprocessing waste, and the low proportion of contained radioactive elements. This work shows that around 12 000 tonnes of REE exist in red mud at the two case study areas alone, with much larger resources existing across Europe as a whole.The research leading to these results has received funding from the European 669 Community’s Seventh Framework Programme ([FP7/2007-2013]) under Grant 670 Agreement no. 309373

Carbonatites and Alkaline Igneous Rocks in Post-Collisional Settings: Storehouses of Rare Earth Elements

This is the final version. Available on open access from Springer via the DOI in this recordThe rare earth elements (REE) are critical raw materials for much of modern technology, particularly renewable energy infrastructure and electric vehicles that are vital for the energy transition. Many of the world’s largest REE deposits occur in alkaline rocks and carbonatites, which are found in intracontinental, rift-related settings, and also in syn- to post-collisional settings. Post-collisional settings host significant REE deposits, such as those of the Mianning-Dechang belt in China. This paper reviews REE mineralisation in syn- to post-collisional alkaline-carbonatite complexes worldwide, in order to demonstrate some of the key physical and chemical features of these deposits. We use three examples, in Scotland, Namibia, and Turkey, to illustrate the structure of these systems. We review published geochemical data and use these to build up a broad model for the REE mineral system in post-collisional alkaline-carbonatite complexes. It is evident that immiscibility of carbonate-rich magmas and fluids plays an important part in generating mineralisation in these settings, with REE, Ba and F partitioning into the carbonate-rich phase. The most significant REE mineralisation in post-collisional alkaline-carbonatite complexes occurs in shallow-level, carbothermal or carbonatite intrusions, but deeper carbonatite bodies and associated alteration zones may also have REE enrichment.European Union Horizon 2020Natural Environment Research Council (NERC

Alkaline-Silicate REE-HFSE Systems

This is the final version. Available on open access from the Society of Economic Geologists via the DOI in this recordDevelopment of renewable energy infrastructure requires critical raw materials, such as the rare earth elements (REEs, including scandium) and niobium, and is driving expansion and diversification in their supply chains. Although alternative sources are being explored, the majority of the world’s resources of these elements are found in alkaline-silicate rocks and carbonatites. These magmatic systems also represent major sources of fluorine and phosphorus. Exploration models for critical raw materials are comparatively less well developed than those for major and precious metals, such as iron, copper, and gold, where most of the mineral exploration industry continues to focus. The diversity of lithologic relationships and a complex nomenclature for many alkaline rock types represent further barriers to the exploration and exploitation of REE-high field strength element (HFSE) resources that will facilitate the green revolution. We used a global review of maps, cross sections, and geophysical, geochemical, and petrological observations from alkaline systems to inform our description of the alkaline-silicate REE + HFSE mineral system from continental scale (1,000s km) down to deposit scale (~1 km lateral). Continental-scale targeting criteria include a geodynamic trigger for low-degree mantle melting at high pressure and a mantle source enriched in REEs, volatile elements, and alkalies. At the province and district scales, targeting criteria relate to magmatic-system longevity and the conditions required for extensive fractional crystallization and the residual enrichment of the REEs and HFSEs. A compilation of maps and geophysical data were used to construct an interactive 3-D geologic model (25-km cube) that places mineralization within a depth and horizontal reference frame. It shows typical lithologic relationships surrounding orthomagmatic REE-Nb-Ta-Zr-Hf mineralization in layered agpaitic syenites, roof zone REE-Nb-Ta mineralization, and mineralization of REE-Nb-Zr associated with peralkaline granites and pegmatites. The resulting geologic model is presented together with recommended geophysical and geochemical approaches for exploration targeting, as well as mineral processing and environmental factors pertinent for the development of mineral resources hosted by alkaline-silicate magmatic systems.European Union Horizon 202

The Perceived Benefits of Height: Strength, Dominance, Social Concern, and Knowledge among Bolivian Native Amazonians

Research in industrial countries suggests that, with no other knowledge about a person, positive traits are attributed to taller people and correspondingly, that taller people have slightly better socioeconomic status (SES). However, research in some non-industrialized contexts has shown no correlation or even negative correlations between height and socioeconomic outcomes. It remains unclear whether positive traits remain attributed to taller people in such contexts. To address this question, here we report the results of a study in a foraging-farming society of native Amazonians in Bolivia (Tsimane’)–a group in which we have previously shown little association between height and socioeconomic outcomes. We showed 24 photographs of pairs of Tsimane’ women, men, boys, and girls to 40 women and 40 men >16 years of age. We presented four behavioral scenarios to each participant and asked them to point to the person in the photograph with greater strength, dominance, social concern, or knowledge. The pairs in the photographs were of the same sex and age, but one person was shorter. Tsimane’ women and men attributed greater strength, dominance, and knowledge to taller girls and boys, but they did not attribute most positive traits to taller adults, except for strength, and more social concern only when women assessed other women in the photographs. These results raise a puzzle: why would Tsimane’ attribute positive traits to tall children, but not tall adults? We propose three potential explanations: adults’ expectations about the more market integrated society in which their children will grow up, height as a signal of good child health, and children’s greater variation in the traits assessed corresponding to maturational stages

Swimming induced pulmonary oedema in athletes - a systematic review and best evidence synthesis

Swimming induced pulmonary oedema is an uncommon occurrence and usually presents during strenuous distance swimming in cold water. The prevalence is most likely underreported and the underlying mechanisms are controversial. The purpose of this study was to summarize the evidence with regards to prevalence, pathophysiology and treatment of swimming induced pulmonary oedema in endurance athletes.Medline, Embase, Scopus and Google Scholar were searched and level I-IV from 1970 to 2017 were included. For clinical studies, only publications reporting on swimming-induced pulmonary oedema were considered. Risk of bias was assessed with the ROBINS-I tool, and the quality of evidence was assessed with the Cochrane GRADE system. For data synthesis and analysis, a best evidence synthesis was used.A total of 29 studies were included (174 athletes). The most common symptom was cough, dyspnoea, froth and haemoptysis. The risk of bias for the clinical studies included 13 with moderate risk, 3 with serious, and 4 with critical. Four of the pathophysiology studies had a moderate risk, 3 a serious risk, and 1 a critical risk of bias. A best evidence analysis demonstrated a strong association between cold water immersion and in increases of CVP (central venous pressure), MPAP (mean pulmonary arterial pressure), PVR (peripheral vascular resistance) and PAWP (pulmonary arterial wedge pressure) resulting in interstitial asymptomatic oedema.The results of this study suggest a moderate association between water temperature and the prevalence of SIPE. The presence of the clinical symptoms cough, dyspnoea, froth and haemoptysis are strongly suggestive of SIPE during or immediately following swimming. There is only limited evidence to suggest that there are pre-existing risk factors leading to SIPE with exposure to strenuous physical activity during swimming. There is strong evidence that sudden deaths of triathletes are often associated with cardiac abnormalities

Risk of Several Cancers is Higher in Urban Areas after Adjusting for Socioeconomic Status. Results from a Two-Country Population-Based Study of 18 Common Cancers

Some studies suggest that there are urban–rural variations in cancer incidence but whether these simply reflect urban–rural socioeconomic variation is unclear. We investigated whether there were urban–rural variations in the incidence of 18 cancers, after adjusting for socioeconomic status. Cancers diagnosed between 1995 and 2007 were extracted from the population-based National Cancer Registry Ireland and Northern Ireland Cancer Registry and categorised by urban–rural status, based on population density of area of residence at diagnosis (rural <1 person per hectare, intermediate 1–15 people per hectare, urban >15 people per hectare). Relative risks (RR) were calculated by negative binomial regression, adjusting for age, country and three area-based markers of socioeconomic status. Risks were significantly higher in both sexes in urban than rural residents with head and neck (males RR urban vs. rural = 1.53, 95 % CI 1.42–1.64; females RR = 1.29, 95 % CI 1.15–1.45), esophageal (males 1.21, 1.11–1.31; females 1.21, 1.08–1.35), stomach (males 1.36, 1.27–1.46; females 1.19, 1.08–1.30), colorectal (males 1.14, 1.09–1.18; females 1.04, 1.00–1.09), lung (males 1.54, 1.47–1.61; females 1.74, 1.65–1.84), non-melanoma skin (males 1.13, 1.10–1.17; females 1.23, 1.19–1.27) and bladder (males 1.30, 1.21–1.39; females 1.31, 1.17–1.46) cancers. Risks of breast, cervical, kidney and brain cancer were significantly higher in females in urban areas. Prostate cancer risk was higher in rural areas (0.94, 0.90–0.97). Other cancers showed no significant urban–rural differences. After adjusting for socioeconomic variation, urban–rural differences were evident for 12 of 18 cancers. Variations in healthcare utilization and known risk factors likely explain some of the observed associations. Explanations for others are unclear and, in the interests of equity, warrant further investigation