Molecular mechanism of germination of Clostridium perfringens spores

Clostridium perfringens is the causative agent of a wide variety of diseases in animals and humans. C. perfringens can produce more than 15 toxins. However, individual strains produce a subset of these toxins. Although a small percentage of C. perfringens isolates (mostly belonging to type A) produce C. perfringens enterotoxin (CPE), these are very important human gastrointestinal (GI) pathogens, causing C. perfringens type A food poisoning (FP) and nonfood-borne GI diseases (NFBGID). Due to its anaerobic nature and the ability to form extremely resistant spores found ubiquitously in the environment, to cause the wide array of C. perfringens-associated diseases (CPAD), these C. perfringens spores must germinate, release the nascent cell, grow and produce their toxins. Therefore, germination of C. perfringens spores is the initial and perhaps most important step for the progression of diseases in animals and humans. Although extensive research has been conducted on the mechanism of spore germination of Bacillus species, very few studies of spore germination have been conducted in Clostridium species mainly due to the lack of molecular genetic tools. Genomic comparisons reveal significant differences in the backbone of the germination apparatus between Bacillus and Clostridium species. Consequently, a detail understanding of the molecular mechanism of germination of C. perfringens spores is essential for the development of novel preventive strategies for CPAD as well as diseases caused by other pathogenic Clostridium species. The first focus of this work was to identify and characterize the germinants and the receptors involved in C. perfringens spore germination. Result from these studies found differential germination requirements between spores of FP and NFBGID isolates in that: (i) while a mixture of L-asparagine and KCl was a good germinant for spores of FP and NFBGID isolates, KCl and, to a lesser extent, L-asparagine triggered spore germination in FP isolates only; and ii) L-alanine and L-valine induced significant germination of spores of NFBGID but not FP isolates. In contrast to B. subtilis, C. perfrinegns genomes sequenced to date possess no tricistronic gerA-like operon, but has a monocistronic gerAA that is far from a gerK locus. The gerK locus contains a bicistronic gerKA-gerKC operon and a monocistronic gerKB upstream and in the opposite orientation to gerKA-gerKC. Consequently, through the construction of mutations into strain SM101, a C. perfringens FP isolate, the role of gerAA, gerKA-gerKC and gerKB genes in C. perfringens spore germination were investigated. Results indicated that KCl, L-asparagine and Ca-DPA required GerKA and/or GerKC receptors, while GerAA and GerKB played an auxiliary role in germination. Lack of GerKA and/or GerKC, and GerKB significantly reduced spores colony forming efficiency, indicating a role in spore viability. The fact that C. perfringens spores lacking the main germinant receptor(s) proteins, GerKA and/or GerKC, are still able to germinate albeit poorly compared to wild-type, and that C. perfringens spores germinate with K+ ions alone, raises the hypothesis that GrmA-like antiporters might also play some role in C. perfringens spore germination. Two putative GrmA-like antiporters (i.e., GerO and GerQ) are encoded in the genome of all C. perfringens sequenced to date. This study shows that gerO and gerQ genes are expressed uniquely during sporulation and the mother cell compartment of the sporulating cell. Complementation studies of K+ uptake and Na+ sensitive E. coli mutants indicate that while GerO is capable of translocating K+ and Na+, GerQ is only capable of translocating, to a small extent, Na+ ions. Spores lacking GerO had defective germination in rich medium, KCl, L-asparagine, and Ca-DPA, but not with dodecylamine, defect that might be prior to DPA release during germination. In contrast, loss of GerQ had a much smaller effect on spore germination. Two adjacent Asp residues, important in ion transcloation of the E. coli Na+/H+ antiporter NhaA were also present in GerO, but not GerQ, and replacement of these residues for Asn reduced the protein’s ability to complement gerO spores. Although results from this study indicate that putative antiporters have some role on C. perfringens spore germination, it is unclear whether their role is direct or during spore formation. C. perfringens type A FP spores are capable of germinating with K+ ions, an intrinsic mineral of meats commonly associated with FP. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is also intrinsically found in meat products. Consequently, we hypothesized that FP spores are capable of germinating in presence of Pi. Results from this study show that spores of the majority of FP, but not NFBGID isolates, are able to germinate in presence of Pi. Pi-induced germination of FP spores is primarily through the GerKA and/or GerKC protein, while GerAA and to a much lesser extent, GerKB, play auxiliary roles. The putative Na+/K+-H+ antiporter, GerO, is also required for normal Pi-induced germination. These results suggest that the differential germination phenotypes between spores of FP and NFGID isolates is tightly regulated by their adaptation to different environmental niches. A second focus of this work was to investigate the mechanism of signal transduction between the germinant receptors and the downstream effectors. In B. subtilis, the SpoVA proteins have been associated with Ca-DPA uptake and subsequent release during sporulation and germination, respectively. In addition, Ca-DPA acts as a signal molecule for cortex hydrolysis during B. subtilis spore germination, activating the cortex lytic enzyme (CLE) CwlJ. Results from this study show that in contrast to B. subtilis spoVA mutants, where spores lyse quickly during purification, C. perfringens spoVA spores were stable and germinated similarly as wild-type spores. These results suggest major differences in the regulation of the germination pathway between C. perfringens and B. subtilis, and suggest that activation of CLEs in C. perfringens might be through a different pathway than the Ca-DPA pathway of B. subtilis. A third focus of this work was to investigate the in vivo role of the CLE involved in peptidoglycan (PG) spore cortex hydrolysis during C. perfringens spore germination. Two C. perfringens CLEs (i.e., SleC and SleM) degrade PG spore cortex hydrolysis in vitro, however, due to lack of genetic tools, their in vivo role in spore germination remains unclear. Results from this study show that C. perfringens sleC spores released their DPA slower than wild-type and were not able to germinate with nutrients and non-nutrient germinants. In contrast, sleM spores germinated similar as wild type in presence of nutrient and non-nutrient germinants, indicating that while SleC is essential for cortex hydrolysis and viability of C. perfringens spores, SleM although can degrade cortex PG in vitro, is not essential. A fourth focus of this work was to investigate the in vivo role of the Csp proteases in the initiation of cortex hydrolysis. In vitro work has shown that Csp proteins process the inactive proSleC into the mature enzyme, SleC. However, the in vivo role of the Csp proteins has not been established. In this study, spores a C. perfringens cspB mutant exhibited significantly less viability than wild-type spores, and were unable to germinate with either rich medium or Ca-DPA. Germination of cspB spores was blocked prior to DPA release and cortex hydrolysis. Results from this study indicate that CspB is essential to generate active SleC and allow cortex hydrolysis early in C. perfringens spore germination. In contrast to B. subtilis, Ca-DPA did not activate the CLEs during spore germination present in cspB spores supporting previous results that Ca-DPA acts trough the GerKA and/or GerKC receptor. A final focus of this work was to develop a strategy to inactivate C. perfringens spores in meat products. C. perfringens spores posses high heat and pressure resistance, however, they loss their resistance properties during early stages of germination. In contrast to B. subtilis spores, germination of C. perfringens spores could not be triggered with low pressures. However, they germinated efficiently when heat activated in presence of L-asparagine and KCl at temperatures lethal for vegetative cells, and these germinated spores were efficiently inactivated by subsequent treatment with pressure assisted thermal processing (586 MPa at 73ºC for 10 min). This study shows the feasibility of a novel strategy to inactivate C. perfringens spores in meat products formulated with germinants. Collectively, the present study contributes to the understanding of the mechanism of spore germination in the pathogenic bacterium C. perfringens, and developed an alternative and novel strategy to inactivate C. perfringens spores in meat products

Further Characterization of Clostridium perfringens Small Acid Soluble Protein-4 (Ssp4) Properties and Expression

Background: Clostridium perfringens type A food poisoning (FP) is usually caused by C. perfringens type A strains that carry a chromosomal enterotoxin gene (cpe) and produce spores with exceptional resistance against heat and nitrites. Previous studies showed that the extreme resistance of spores made by most FP strains is mediated, in large part, by a variant of small acid soluble protein 4 (Ssp4) that has Asp at residue 36; in contrast, the sensitive spores made by other C. perfringens type A isolates contain an Ssp4 variant with Gly at residue 36. Methodology/Principal Findings: The current study has further characterized Ssp4 properties and expression. Spores made by cpe-positive type C and D strains were found to contain the Ssp4 variant with Gly at residue 36 and were shown to be heat- and nitrite-sensitive; this finding may help to explain why cpe-positive type C and D isolates rarely cause food poisoning. Saturation mutagenesis indicated that both amino acid size and charge at Ssp4 residue 36 are important for DNA binding and for spore resistance. C. perfringens Ssp2 was shown to bind preferentially to GC-rich DNA on gel-shift assays, while Ssp4 preferred binding to AT-rich DNA sequences. Maximal spore heat and nitrite resistance required production of all four C. perfringens Ssps, indicating that these Ssps act cooperatively to protect the spore's DNA, perhaps by binding to different chromosomal sequences. The Ssp4 variant with Asp at residue 36 was also shown to facilitate exceptional spore survival at freezer and refrigerator temperatures. Finally, Ssp4 expression was shown to be dependent upon Spo0A, a master regulator. Conclusions/Significance: Collectively, these results provide additional support for the importance of Ssps, particularly the Ssp4 variant with Asp at residue 36, for the extreme spore resistance phenotype that likely contributes to C. perfringens type A food poisoning transmission. © 2009 Li et al

Host serum factor triggers germination of Clostridium perfringens spores lacking the cortex hydrolysis machinery

Clostridium perfringens type A is the causative agent of a variety of histotoxic and enteric diseases. The ability of C. perfringens spores to germinate in vivo might be due to the presence of nutrient germinants in the host tissue and blood. In the current study, we investigated the ability of spores of C. perfringens wild-type and mutation strains to germinate in blood. Results indicate that spores of all three surveyed C. perfringens wild-type isolates germinated better in blood than in brain heart infusion (BHI) broth. However, as expected, spores lacking germinant receptor (GR) protein GerAA or GerKB germinated like wild-type spores in BHI broth and blood. Strikingly, while spores lacking GR proteins GerKA and GerKC showed significantly decreased germination in BHI broth, these spores germinated well in blood, suggesting that blood factor(s) can trigger spore germination through a GR-independent pathway. Using C. perfringens spores lacking cortex lytic enzymes (ΔcspB or ΔsleC ΔsleM), we were able to identify a host serum germination factor with peptidoglycan hydrolysing activity that (i) restored the colony-forming efficiencies of ΔcspB and ΔsleC ΔsleM spores up to ~5–20% of that of total colony-forming spores; (ii) increased the number of c.f.u. of decoated ΔcspB and ΔsleC ΔsleM spores to ~99% of that of colony-forming spores; (iii) and finally lost enzymic activity after heat inactivation, consistent with serum germination factor being an enzyme. Further characterization demonstrated that serum germination factor is very likely lysozyme, which can form a stable high molecular mass complex of ~120 kDa in serum. In conclusion, the current study indicates that a host serum germination factor with peptidoglycan hydrolysing activity is capable of triggering germination of C. perfringens spores by directly degrading the spore peptidoglycan cortex. Collectively, this study contributes to our understanding of the mechanism of in vivo germination of spores of C. perfringens

Clostridium difficile spores and its relevance in the persistence and transmission of the infection

Indexación: Web of Science; Scielo.Clostridium difficile es un patógeno anaerobio, formador de esporas y el agente etiológico más importante de las diarreas asociadas a antimicrobianos, tanto nosocomiales como adquiridas en la comunidad. Las infecciones asociadas a C. difficile poseen una elevada tasa de morbilidad en países desarrollados y en vías de desarrollo. Los dos factores de virulencia principales son TcdA y TcdB, toxinas que causan la remodelación del citoesqueleto lo cual desencadena los síntomas clínicos asociados a esta enfermedad infecciosa. A pesar que las esporas de C. difficile son el principal vehículo de infección, persistencia en el hospedero y de transmisión, pocos estudios se han enfocado sobre este clave aspecto. Es altamente probable que la espora juegue roles esenciales en los episodios de recurrencia y de transmisión horizontal de la infección por este microorganismo. Estudios recientes han revelado características únicas de las esporas de C. difficile que las hacen capaces de ser altamente transmisibles y persistir dentro del hospedero. Más aún, algunas de estas propiedades están relacionadas con la resistencia de sus esporas a los desinfectantes más comúnmente usados en los recintos hospitalarios. La presente revisión resume los conocimientos más relevantes en la biología de las esporas de C. difficile, con un énfasis en aquellos aspectos con implicancias clínicas, incluido el control de infecciones en el ambiente hospitalario.C. difficile is an anaerobic spore former pathogen and the most important etiologic agent of nosocomial and community acquired antibiotics associated diarrheas. C. difficile infections (CDI) are responsible for an elevated rate of morbidity in developed and developing countries. Although the major virulence factors responsible for clinical symptoms of CDI are the two toxins TcdA and TcdB, C. difficile spores are the main vehicle of infection, persistence and transmission of CDI. Recent work has unrevealed unique properties of C. difficile spores that make them remarkable morphotypes of persistence and transmission in the host, including their resistance to antibiotics, the host immune response and disinfectants. The present review summarizes relevant aspects of C. difficile spore biology that have major implications from a clinical and medical perspective.http://ref.scielo.org/3xfbk

High hydrostatic pressure-induced inactivation of bacterial spores

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is the most-widely adopted novel non-thermal technology for the commercial pasteurization of foods. However, HHP-induced inactivation of bacterial spores remains a challenge due their resistance to the treatment limits of currently available industrial HHP units (i.e., ~650 MPa and 50°C). Several reports have demonstrated that high pressure can modulate the germination machinery of bacterial spores rendering them susceptible to subsequent inactivation treatments. Unfortunately, high pressure-induced germination is a unique phenomenon for spores of the genus Bacillus but not Clostridium. Alternative strategies to inactivate bacterial spores at commercially available pressure and temperature levels include the germination step by inclusion of known germinants into the food formulation to increase the lethality of HHP treatments on bacterial spores. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the molecular basis involved in pressure-triggered germination of bacterial spores and of novel strategies to inactivate bacterial spores with HHP treatments.Keywords: Spore inactivation, HHP, Spore germination, Bacterial spores, PATP

Characterization of the Adherence of Clostridium difficile Spores: The Integrity of the Outermost Layer Affects Adherence Properties of Spores of the Epidemic Strain R20291 to Components of the Intestinal Mucosa

Indexación: Web of Science.Clostridium difficile is the causative agent of the most frequently reported nosocomial diarrhea worldwide. The high incidence of recurrent infection is the main clinical challenge of C. difficile infections (CBI). Formation of C. difficile spores of the epidemic strain R20291 has been shown to be essential for recurrent infection and transmission of the disease in a mouse model. However, the underlying mechanisms of how these spores persist in the colonic environment remains unclear. In this work, we characterized the adherence properties of epidemic R20291 spores to components of the intestinal mucosa, and we assessed the role of the exosporium integrity in the adherence properties by using cdeC mutant spores with a defective exosporium layer. Our results showed that spores and vegetative cells of the epidemic R20291 strain adhered at high levels to monolayers of Caco-2 cells and mucin. Transmission electron micrographs of Caco-2 cells demonstrated that the hair-like projections on the surface of R20291 spores are in close proximity with the plasma membrane and microvilli of undifferentiated and differentiated monolayers of Caco-2 cells. Competitive-binding assay in differentiated Caco-2 cells suggests that spore-adherence is mediated by specific binding sites. By using spores of a cdeC mutant we demonstrated that the integrity of the exosporium layer determines the affinity of adherence of C. difficile spores to Caco-2 cells and mucin. Binding of fibronectin and vitronectin to the spore surface was concentration-dependent, and depending on the concentration, spore-adherence to Caco-2 cells was enhanced. In the presence of an aberrantly-assembled exosporium (cdeC spores), binding of fibronectin, but not vitronectin, was increased. Notably, independent of the exosporium integrity, only a fraction of the spores had fibronectin and vitronectin molecules binding to their surface. Collectively, these results demonstrate that the integrity of the exosporium layer of strain R20291 contributes to selective spore adherence to components of the intestinal mucosa.http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fcimb.2016.00099/ful

Clostridium difficile Spore-Macrophage Interactions: Spore Survival

Background: Clostridium difficile is the main cause of nosocomial infections including antibiotic associated diarrhea, pseudomembranous colitis and toxic megacolon. During the course of Clostridium difficile infections (CDI), C. difficile undergoes sporulation and releases spores to the colonic environment. The elevated relapse rates of CDI suggest that C. difficile spores has a mechanism(s) to efficiently persist in the host colonic environment. Methodology/Principal Findings: In this work, we provide evidence that C. difficile spores are well suited to survive the host's innate immune system. Electron microscopy results show that C. difficile spores are recognized by discrete patchy regions on the surface of macrophage Raw 264.7 cells, and phagocytosis was actin polymerization dependent. Fluorescence microscopy results show that >80% of Raw 264.7 cells had at least one C. difficile spore adhered, and that similar to 60% of C. difficile spores were phagocytosed by Raw 264.7 cells. Strikingly, presence of complement decreased Raw 264.7 cells' ability to phagocytose C. difficile spores. Due to the ability of C. difficile spores to remain dormant inside Raw 264.7 cells, they were able to survive up to 72 h of macrophage infection. Interestingly, transmission electron micrographs showed interactions between the surface proteins of C. difficile spores and the phagosome membrane of Raw 264.7 cells. In addition, infection of Raw 264.7 cells with C. difficile spores for 48 h produced significant Raw 264.7 cell death as demonstrated by trypan blue assay, and nuclei staining by ethidium homodimer-1. Conclusions/Significance: These results demonstrate that despite efficient recognition and phagocytosis of C. difficile spores by Raw 264.7 cells, spores remain dormant and are able to survive and produce cytotoxic effects on Raw 264.7 cells

Intra-species diversity of Clostridium perfringens: A diverse genetic repertoire reveals its pathogenic potential

Clostridium perfringens is the causative agent of many enterotoxic diseases in humans and animals, and it is present in diverse environments (soil, food, sewage, and water). Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) and Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) have provided a general approach about genetic diversity of C. perfringens; however, those studies are limited to specific locations and often include a reduced number of genomes. In this study, 372 C. perfringens genomes from multiple locations and sources were used to assess the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relatedness of this pathogen. In silico MLST was used for typing the isolates, and the resulting sequence types (ST) were assigned to clonal complexes (CC) based on allelic profiles that differ from its founder by up to double-locus variants. A pangenome analysis was conducted, and a core genome-based phylogenetic tree was created to define phylogenetic groups. Additionally, key virulence factors, toxinotypes, and antibiotic resistance genes were identified using ABRicate against Virulence Factor Database (VFDB), TOXiper, and Resfinder, respectively. The majority of the C. perfringens genomes found in publicly available databases were derived from food (n = 85) and bird (n = 85) isolates. A total of 195 STs, some of them shared between sources such as food and human, horses and dogs, and environment and birds, were grouped in 25 CC and distributed along five phylogenetic groups. Fifty-three percent of the genomes were allocated to toxinotype A, followed by F (32%) and G (7%). The most frequently found virulence factors based on > 70% coverage and 99.95% identity were plc (100%), nanH (99%), ccp (99%), and colA (98%), which encode an alpha-toxin, a sialidase, an alpha-clostripain, and a collagenase, respectively, while tetA (39.5%) and tetB (36.2%), which mediate tetracycline resistance determinants, were the most common antibiotic resistance genes detected. The analyses conducted here showed a better view of the presence of this pathogen across several host species. They also confirm that the genetic diversity of C. perfringens is based on a large number of virulence factors that vary among phylogroups, and antibiotic resistance markers, especially to tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, and macrolides. Those characteristics highlight the importance of C. perfringens as a one of the most common causes of foodborne illness

Landscapes and bacterial signatures of mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota in Chilean and Spanish patients with inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), which include ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD), cause chronic inflammation of the gut, affecting millions of people worldwide. IBDs have been frequently associated with an alteration of the gut microbiota, termed dysbiosis, which is generally characterized by an increase in abundance of Proteobacteria such as Escherichia coli, and a decrease in abundance of Firmicutes such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (an indicator of a healthy colonic microbiota). The mechanisms behind the development of IBDs and dysbiosis are incompletely understood. Using samples from colonic biopsies, we studied the mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota in Chilean and Spanish patients with IBD. In agreement with previous studies, microbiome comparison between IBD patients and non-IBD controls indicated that dysbiosis in these patients is characterized by an increase of pro-inflammatory bacteria (mostly Proteobacteria) and a decrease of commensal beneficial bacteria (mostly Firmicutes). Notably, bacteria typically residing on the mucosa of healthy individuals were mostly obligate anaerobes, whereas in the inflamed mucosa an increase of facultative anaerobe and aerobic bacteria was observed. We also identify potential co-occurring and mutually exclusive interactions between bacteria associated with the healthy and inflamed mucosa, which appear to be determined by the oxygen availability and the type of respiration. Finally, we identified a panel of bacterial biomarkers that allow the discrimination between eubiosis from dysbiosis with a high diagnostic performance (96% accurately), which could be used for the development of non-invasive diagnostic methods. Thus, this study is a step forward towards understanding the landscapes and alterations of mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota in patients with IBDs.This study was supported by Fondo Nacional De Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico FONDECYT grant 1161161 to R. Vidal, CONICYT-PCHA/2014-21140975 fellowship to N. Chamorro, FONDECYT 1120577 and 1170648 to Hermoso MA and the Spanish Ministry of Economy projects CLG2015 66686-C3-1-P to Rosselló-Mora R., as well as funds from the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER) and NSF Dimensions in Biodiversity grant OCE-1342694. Support was also provided by a Millennium Science Initiative grant from the Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism to Paredes-Sabja D